Hukum Bisnis International

Kontrak Komersial International
Fokus Mata Kuliah
• Mata kuliah ini pada dasarnya akan membahas
aspek mikro dari kegiatan bisnis lintas negara
yang dilakukan oleh para pelaku bisnis.
• “formation and enforcement of agreements
between private commercial parties”
Legal Framework for International
Business
• Growth of international business
• The importance of law in a transnational
business transaction: “strategic planning” 
identifying relevant legal issues as early as
possible in the process
• Various legal system: civil law and common law
(p. 8)
• International cooperation and the harmonization
of business law (p. 43)
Sources of International Business Law
• National law
• International law:
a) Konvensi internasional
b) Model law
c) General principles
d) Standar kontrak
• Perbandingan hukum (Adolf p. 13)
Konvensi
Internasional
Model Law
General
Principles
Standar
Kontrak
Introduction to International and
Comparative Law
• Public vs private international law
Public : legal relationships between and among
STATES
Private : laws governing the conduct between
PEOPLE (and corporations) from different
states.
Nowadays, the term international law refers to both
public and private aspects of international law.
• International law as a soft law: there is no such
formal lawmaking machinery (legislatures, court and
government agencies) exists
Many views on International Law
• Cosmopolitans: int’l law is based on universal
human rights
• Positivists: int’l law is based on the sovereign
equality of all states in the int’l system and state
consent to individual int’l laws, either through
treaties or custom.
• Hobbesian: states will make agreements and
abide by int’l law only when it suits their selfinterests.
Kitab Undang-Undang Hukum Perdata
(KUHPer) sebagai Hukum Nasional
• KUHPer atau Burgerlijk Wetboek merupakan hukum
perdata Indonesia yang bersumber dari Kode
Napoleon. Peruntukan awalnya adalah bagi
golongan Eropa, Timur Asing dan Tionghoa. Setelah
Indonesia merdeka aturan hukum ini berlaku untuk
semua warga negara Indonesia, yang diberlakukan
melalui Pasal 2 aturan peralihan UUD 1945 (asas
konkordasi).
• “Seluruh peraturan yang dibuat oleh pemerintah
Hindia-Belanda berlaku bagi warga negara
Indonesia”
Sistematika KUHPer (Cont…)
• Buku I
: Orang (subyek hukum, hukum
perkawinan dan hukum keluarga)
• Buku II : Benda/Barang
• Buku III : Perikatan
• Buku IV : Pembuktian dan Daluwarsa
Perikatan
• Perikatan = perjanjian?
Perikatan adalah lebih luas daripada perjanjian. Semua
perjanjian sudah pasti merupakan perikatan. Sedangkan
suatu perikatan belum tentu merupakan perjanjian.
Mengapa? Karena sumber dari perikatan tidak hanya dari
perjanjian, tetapi bisa bersumber dari undang-undang
[Pasal 1233 KUHPer) (perbuatan hukum yang melanggar
hukum (orechmatige daad) dan pengurusan kepentingan
orang lain yang tidak berdasarkan persetujuan
(zaakwarneming)).
• Buku ketiga memiliki sifat terbuka (tambahan/aanvulend
recht)
Apakah aturan hukum nasional kita sudah mampu mengakomodasi
perkembangan hukum komersial yang ada di masyarakat?
Ferronica Taylor: “the legal rules that govern contracts in
Indonesia are found primarily Dutch-style Civil Code and
partially revised Commercial Code, although many of the
Code provisions are now regarded as obsolete or
inappropriate for current commercial transactions.
Commercial parties routinely seek to contract out or exclude
the operation of archaic parts of the Code from their own
contracts. The fact that there is no authorized or
standardized translation of the Civil Code into English also
symbolizes its lack of pungency” (Indonesia, Law and Society,
page 279).
Source: Taryana Sunandar, S.H., M.H., Prinsip-Prinsip UNIDROIT: sebagai Sumber
Hukum Kontrak dan Penyelesaian Sengketa Bisnis Internasional, Sinar Grafika,
2004.
Kontrak
• Kontrak nasional v. kontrak internasional
• Indikator unsur asing (foreign elements) yang ada
didalam suatu kontrak:
1. Kebangsaan yang berbeda
2. Domisili hukum di negara yang berbeda
3. Governing law adalah hukum asing
4. Penyelesaia sengketa dilakukan di luar negeri
5. Penandatanganan kontrak dilakukan di luar
negeri
6. Objek perjanjian berada di luar negeri
7. Bahasa yang digunakan adalah bahasa asing
8. Menggunakan mata uang asing
Source: Huala Adolf, Dasar-Dasar Hukum Kontrak Internasional, hal: 4
Prinsip Fundamental dan Prinsip-Prinsip
Hukum Kontrak Internasional
• Prinsip Fundamental
1. Prinsip kedaulatan hukum nasional
2. Prinsip kebebasan berkontrak (party
autonomy)
• Prinsip-Prinsip Hukum Kontrak Internasional
1. Pacta sunt servanda (Pasal 1338 KUHPer)
2. Good faith
Hukum Kontrak Internasional sebagain
Bidang Ilmu yang bersifat Interdisipliner
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Hukum Kontrak Nasional
Hukum Perdata Internasional
Hukum Perdagangan Internasional
Hukum Internasioal
Comparative Law
Harmonisasi Hukum Kontrak
Internasional
• Harmonisasi v. Unifikasi
• Upaya dalam Melakukan Harmonisasi Hukum
Kontrak Internasional
Para Pihak dalam Kontrak Komersial
Internasional
• Kontrak internasional v. Kontrak Komersial
Internasional
• Pihak-pihak dalam kontrak internasional:
a. Antar perusahaan
b. Antar negara dan perusahaan
c. Antar negara dengan negara
d. Antar organisasi internasional dengan
perusahaan
Sumber Hukum Kontrak Komersial
Internasional
1. Hukum nasional
2. Dokumen kontrak
3. Kebiasaan perdagangan internasional (lex
mercatoria)
4. Prinsip-prinsip hukum umum mengenai kontrak
5. Putusan pengadilan yang berkekuatan hukum
tetap
6. Doktrin
7. Perjanjian internasional mengenai kontrak
Pilihan hukum (choice of law/governing
law)
• Substantive law and procedural law
• Prinsip-prinsip pilihan hukum
1. Prinsip kebebasan para pihak
2. Prinsip bonafide
3. Prinsip real connection
4. Prinsip separabilitas klausul pilihan hukum
Pilihan Forum dalam Kontrak Komersial
Internasional
• Fungsi
• Prinsip-prinsip dalam melakukan pilihan forum
1. Prinsip kebebasan para pihak
2. Prinsip bonafide
3. Prinsip prediktabilitas dan efektivitas
4. Prinsip jurisdiksi ekslusif
Penentuan pilihan hukum (choice of law) dan pilihan forum (choice of forum)
merupakan hak bagi para pihak, sebagaimana sesuai dengan prinsip universal
dalam hukum kontrak, yang dikenal dengan istilah party autonomy (kebebasan
para pihak). Meskipun demikian, bebas disini bukan berarti bebas sebebasbebasnya tanpa ada suatu batasan. Setiap pihak yang terlibat dalam suatu
transaksi/bisnis internasional harus memahami bahwa prinsip kedaulatan hukum
adalah suatu prinsip yang paling tinggi dan tidak dapat dinegasikan oleh prinsipprinsip lainnya. Hal penting lainnya yang penting untuk menjadi perhatian adalah
bahwa masing-masing negara menganut sistem hukumnya sendiri-sendiri. Selain
itu hukum yang ada di masing-masing negara tumbuh dan berkembang sesuai
dengan perkembangan yang ada dalam masyarakat tersebut, yang dipengaruhi
oleh faktor sosial, budaya, agama, dan politik. Oleh karena itu, meskipun para
pihak diberikan kebebasan untuk memilih hukum mana yang akan mengatur
kontrak mereka, pilihan hukum tersebut akan dibatasi oleh ketertiban umum yang
berlaku di masing-masing negara yang ada kaitannya dengan kontrak yang dibuat
oleh para pihak.
Fungsi Ketertiban Umum dalam
Kaitannya dengan Choice of Law
1. Sebagai
rem
atau
penghambat,
yaitu
membatasi
diberlakukannya hukum asing dalam hal-hal tertentu;
2. Untuk menghalangi kebebasan hak otonomi para pihak dalam
menentukan berlakunya hukum dalam kontrak mereka;
3. Sebagai elemen yang membatasi berlakunya stelsel hukum asing
yang tidak sesuai dengan stelsel hukum dari hakim yang
mengadili sengketa para pihak; dan
4. Sebagai perlindungan terhadap pemakaian otonomi hak para
pihak dalam choice of law yang terlampau luas.
Sumber: Pandangan Yuridis Conflict of Law dan Choice of Law dalam Kontrak Bisnis Internasional, Prof. Dr. Abdul Gani
Abdullah,
S.H.,
http://www.bi.go.id/NR/rdonlyres/A0050DCB-4CF8-4A5E-B196BF1B4D6A4028/8007/1pandangan.pdf, terakhir kali diakses pada 20 Oktober 2013.
Pembatasan terhadap Pilihan Hukum di
Amerika Serikat
Pembatasan terhadap pilihan hukum para pihak
diatur dalam Pasal 187 (2) (b) The Restatement
(second), yang menentukan pengadilan mengikuti
hukum para pihak, kecuali bertentangan dengan
kebijaksanaan mendasar dari negara yang
mempunyai hubungan lebih erat dengan pilihan
hukum yang telah dilakukan.
Pembatasan atas Asas Kebebasan
Berkontrak di Indonesia
Pasal 1337 KUHPerdata, bahwa suatu sebab terlarang
apabila bertentangan dengan undang-undang, kesusilaan
atau ketertiban umum, demikian pula Pasal 25 AB, bahwa
perbuatan atau perjanjian tidak boleh menghilangkan
kekuatan peraturan hukum, ketentuan umum atau
kesusilaan.
Pasal 17 AB mengatur tentang barang tidak bergerak
berlaku hukum nasional di tempat barang itu terletak
sesuai dengan asas lex rei sitae.
Hukum negara hakim yang mengadili dapat
menjadi dasar penyelesaiannya apabila hukum
yang dipilih para pihak tidak dapat diterapkan
dalam sengketa yang terjadi.
Pendekatan yang digunakan dalam
Menentukan Pilihan Hukum yang Tepat
• Lex Loci contractus: the law of the place of
contracting  “a contract is like a person, was
subject to the law of the place of its origin, and
the origin as such was the place where the
contract was born” (20 EMORY INT’L L . REV 511
517 (2006))
• Party autonomy: party intention
What if the parties did not expressly or impliedly
state the governing law of their contract?
Friedrich Carl Von Savigny
• “Every legal relationship is governed by the law of the state or
nation… in which it has its seat”
• Dalam menentukan “seat” yang dimaksud, Savigny berpendapat
bahwa hakim sebaiknya memperhatikan “the intimate connection
between the forum and the territorial law”: the primary factor in
determining the seat it the intention of the parties in concluding
the contract. “If such intention was not clearly manifested, it
should be inferred from the circumstances under which the
obligation arose”
• The parties feel that the question of an express
choice of law and forum clause would cause an
unnecessary quarrel over a matter of prestige and
impair chances for effective co-operation
• Thus, some multi-party contracts on long-term
cooperation, e.g. ventures on the exploitation of
natural resources (mining, fishing) do not contain
express choice of law clauses.
• This inclination to avoid the application of a national
law is obvious in contracts with international
institutions, such as the World Bank
• the parties still regard an express choice of law clause as a
certain safeguard against unforeseen legal consequences.
Moreover, some countries insist on the application of their
own national law. This is often true with contracts where one
party is a government or governmental agency, particularly in
the case of developing countries. It is legal tradition in Latin
American countries, and more recently the practice of some of
the Arab countries has been to have contracts subjected to
their own national laws and jurisdiction. This position can lead
to difficult problems if the applicable national laws have no
adequate solution to the legal problems which may arise out of
the relevant transaction, or if the courts are not inclined to
take notice of the fair expectations of foreign parties.
Metode Penyelesaian Sengketa dalam
Kasus Kontrak Komersial Internasional
• Litigasi
• Non-litigasi
1. Negosiasi
2. Mediasi
3. Arbitrase
Hal-hal penting yang harus dipahami dalam pembuatan
dan pelaksanaan kontrak komersil internasional
• “contracts as the legal tools for the peaceful
transfer of goods, services and technology in a
fair balance of interests” (http://www.trans-lex.org/113800)
• Types of contracts, types of clauses and types of
legal problems
• Identical standard clauses: contract’s legal
structure
• Internationally uniform legal regime of
mandatory rules of an international convention
Elements of Good Contract
• Quality of the text
• Clause/rule (responding to practical needs and
must reflect a fair balance of interests and risks)
• Attention to firmly established
traditions/rules/customs
Harmonisasi Hukum Kontrak Komersial
Internasional
• United Nations Convention on Contract for the
International Sale of Goods (CISG) by United
Nations Conference on International Trade Law
(UNCITRAL)
• Principles of International Commercial Contract
(Prinsip-prinsip UNIDROIT)
Upaya harmonisasi hukum kontrak telah dimulai sejak tahun 1917 yang dilakukan oleh pemerintah
Perancis dan Italia.
Upaya unifikasi hukum antar negara dipandang sebagai suatu proyek yang ambisius. Oleh karena itu,
dibentuklah suatu kelompok kerja yang disebut dengan kelompok kerja UNIDROIT. Tujuan
dibentuknya kelompok kerja ini adalah untuk menghasilkan prinsip-prinsip umum bagi hukum
kontrak komersial internasional. (Soenandar, hal. 9)
• Prinsip-prinsip UNIDROIT akan berlaku apabila terdapat kesepakatan diantara
para pihak untuk menggunakan prinsip ini sebagai governing law bagi kontrak
yang mereka buat, dan sekaligus juga tunduk pada prinsip hukum umum
(general principles of law) dan lex mercatoria. (Soenandar, hal. 10)
• Biasanya para pihak akan menentukan terlebih dahulu governing law bagi
kontrak mereka, i.e. CISG atau misalnya hukum negara X (dimana hukum
perdata internasional negara tersebut juga menunjuk CISG sebagai hukum bagi
penyelesaian sengketa bagi para pihak), lalu klausul ini kemudian diikuti oleh
pernyataan sebagai berikut
“This contract shall be governed by the United Nations Convention on
Contracts for the International Sale of Goods of 1980 (CISG) without
regard to any national reservation, supplemented for matters which are
not governed by the CISG, by the UNIDROIT Principles of International
Commercial Contracts and these supplemented by the otherwise
applicable national law.”
Pembentukan CISG
• Harmonisasi hukum kontrak jual beli barang
internasional
• UNCITRAL sebagai lembaga yang mempromosikan
progresivitas dalam harmonisasi dan unifikasi hukum di
bidang perdagangan internasional.
• Konferensi yang membahas rancangan (draft) konvensi
diselenggarakan selama lebih kurang 1 bulan, yang
menghasilkan CISG yang tediri dari 101 pasal.
Sistematika CISG
• Aturan substansial
Pasal 1 s.d. Pasal 88
• Aturan administratif
Pasal 89 s.d. Pasal 101
CISG mulai berlaku pada tanggal 1 Januari 1988
terhadap 11 negara. (Berapakah jumlah negara
peratifikasi CISG hingga saat ini?)
CISG hanya mengatur kontrak jual beli barang yang
bersifat internasional.
Pertanyaan Refleksi
Apakah kehadiran CISG dan UNIDROIT principles
telah menunjukkan adanya harmonisasi hukum
kontrak komersial internasional dalam praktik
transaksi komersial lintas negara?
Empat tahapan kontrak
1.
2.
3.
4.
Negosiasi
Pembuatan kontrak (formation of contract)
Tahap pelaksanaan (performance of contract)
Pasca contractual
Muatan Konvensi CISG
Ketentuan-ketentuan terkait substansi kontrak
dibagi kedalam lima bab:
I. Ketentuan umum
II. Kewajiban membayar
III. Kewajiban pembeli
IV. Peralihan resiko
V. Ketentuan umum terhadap kewajiban penjual
dan pembeli
Berlakunya CISG
1.
2.
3.
4.
For parties with their relevant places of business in different Contracting
States, where their contract falls within the scope of the CISG, the contract is
automatically governed by the CISG, unless the parties indicate otherwise;
When only one of the parties has his relevant place of business in a
Contracting State if the applicable domestic law regards the law of that
Contracting State as the governing law;
The CISG can apply to transactions between parties neither of whom has his
relevant place of business in a Contracting State; and
There are situations in which principles of the CISG can be deemed
applicable even when neither party has his relevant place of business in a
Contracting State and the parties have made no reference to the CISG in their
contract
In a series of contracts for the sale of goods on f.o.b. terms, the buyer disputed, both prior to shipment
and upon arrival, the conformity of goods covered under one of the contracts with certain contract
specifications. The buyer treated the goods in order to make them more saleable and sold them at a
loss. The seller demanded full payment and the buyer filed a counterclaim demanding compensation
for direct losses, financing costs, lost profits and interest.
The arbitral tribunal held, pursuant to article 13(3) of the 1975 ICC arbitration rules, which allows the
tribunal in the absense of a choice of law by the parties to determine the applicable law by applying
the private international law rule that it deems appropriate, that the contract was governed by the
law of the country where the seller had his place of business. In addition, pursuant to article 13(5) of
the ICC arbitration rules, the tribunal decided to take into account CISG as a source of prevailing trade
usages. As the applicable provisions of the law of the country where the seller had his place of business
appeared to deviate from the generally accepted trade usages reflected in CISG in that it imposed
extremely short and specific time requirements in respect of the buyer giving notice to the seller in
case of defects, the tribunal applied CISG.
The tribunal found that the buyer had complied with the requirements of CISG to examine the goods
properly (art. 38(1) CISG) and to notify the seller accordingly (art. 39(1) CISG). It was held that,
according to article 40 CISG, at any rate the seller would not be entitled to rely on non-compliance by
the buyer with article 38 and 39 of CISG for the reason that the seller knew of could not have been
unaware of the non-conformity of the goods with contract specifications. The tribunal awarded the
seller the full amount of its claim and set it off against part of the buyer's counterclaim.
Applicability/Trade usages, CISG as source of/Lex mercatoria. Article
9(1) states that the parties are bound by any usages to which they
have agreed, either expressly or by implication. Article 9(2) provides
that an agreement may be implied only when the usage is "widely
known to, and regularly observed by parties to contracts of the type
involved in the particular trade concerned." Referring to ICC
Arbitration Rules which state that arbitrators will take into account
"relevant trade usages", the tribunal stated that the CISG's notice
provisions are "prevailing trade usages" and held that, as such, they
apply to this case.
http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/wais/db/cases2/895713i1.html
Scholarly articles on CISG
• http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/biblio/drobnig.html
(General Principles of European Contract Law )
• http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/biblio/schwenzerhachem.html (The CISG - Successes and Pitfalls)
• http://www.cisg.law.pace.edu/cisg/biblio/audit.html
(The Vienna Sales Convention and the Lex Mercatoria )
Ruang Lingkup Pengaturan
• Berlakunya CISG
• CISG tidak berlaku apabila:
Article 2
http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cisg/text/digest-201202.html
Article 3
http://cisgw3.law.pace.edu/cisg/text/digest-201203.html
Sales and Goods
• Sales: secara eksplisit tidak ditemukan pengertian “sales” (jual beli) di dalam
CISG. Secara implisit CISG menyebutkan bahwa kewajiban seorang penjual
terdiri dari “mengirimkan barang, menyerahkan dokumen-dokumen terkait
dan menyerahkan hak kepemilikan dari benda tersebut”; sedangkan seorang
pembeli berkewajiban untuk “melakukan pembayaran”. Berdasarkan
penjabaran tersebut, bisa dilihat bahwa pengertian “sales” menurut CISG
adalah “passing of title from the seller to they buyer for a price”.
• Goods: Drafters CISG juga tidak menyebutkan pengertian CISG, melalui
pengecualian-pengecualian yang dijabarkan dalam Pasal 2 dapat dipahami
bahwa konvensi CISG hanya mengatur tentang barang-barang yang bergerak
(movable) dan dapat dilihat (tangible).
• Dalam versi bahasa Perancis Convention Relating to a Uniform Law on the
International Sales of Goods 1964, istilah “goods” merujuk pada terminologi
“merchandise”.
• Pengecualian-pengecualian untuk jenis jual beli
“barang” tertentu dibuat karena mengingat
hukum nasional masing-masing negara telah
memiliki pengaturan tersendiri mengenai hal
tersebut.
Isu Kontraktual yang Dikecualikan oleh
CISG
1. Illegality (ketidaksahan) and incompetency
(ketidakcakapan hukum)
2. Third-party Claims and Personal Injuries
Interpreting CISG
• Article 7(1)
1. The international character of the convention;
2. The need to promote uniformity in the convention’s
application; and
3. The observance of good faith.
• The use of “plain meaning”
• Travaux preparatoires
• Case law
• Article 7 (2):
1. The convention;
2. The general principles on which the convention
is based;
3. The rules of private international law.
Interpreting Sales Contract
What?
• Whether a contract has been made
• Interpretation of the terms
• Ascertaining that contract has been performed as agreed
How?
Article 8: Rules for interpreting the statements and conduct of the
parties
Article 9: Usages and practices (of the parties and as well as the
practices of trade to which the contract relates)
Article 8
1.
2.
3.
For the purposes of this Convention statements made by and other conduct
of a party are to be interpreted according to his intent where the other
party knew or could not have been unaware what that intent was;
If the preceding paragraph is not applicable, statements made by and other
conduct of a party are to be interpreted according to the understanding that
a reasonable person of the same kind as the other party would have had in
the same circumstances; and
In determining the intent of a party or the understanding a reasonable
person would have had, due consideration is to be given to all relevant
circumstances of the case including the negotiations, any practices which
the parties have established between themselves, usages and any
subsequent conduct of the parties.
Statement and Conduct of the Parties
• Subjective Intent Approach
• Objective Intent Approach
Parol evidence rule: a rule that forbids a court from
considering any “prior” or any “contemporaneous oral
understanding” when it is interpreting a writing that the
parties intended as a “final expression of their
agreement”.
Did CISG adopt this kind of rule?
Article 8 (3) and Article 6
Article 8 (3):
Article 6: The parties may exclude the application of this Convention or, subject
to article 12, derogate from or vary the effect of any of its provisions.
Article 12: Any provision of article 11, article 29 or Part II of this Convention that
allows a contract of sale or its modification or termination by agreement or any
offer, acceptance or other indication of intention to be made in any form other
than in writing does not apply where any party has his place of business in a
Contracting State which has made a declaration under article 96 of this
Convention. The parties may not derogate from or vary the effect or this article.
• Article 11: A contract of sale need not be concluded in or
evidenced by writing and is not subject to any other requirement
as to form. It may be proved by any means, including witnesses.
• Article 96: A Contracting State whose legislation requires
contracts of sale to be concluded in or evidenced by writing may
at any time make a declaration in accordance with article 12 that
any provision of article 11, article 29, or Part II of this Convention,
that allows a contract of sale or its modification or termination by
agreement or any offer, acceptance, or other indication of
intention to be made in any form other than in writing, does not
apply where any party has his place of business in that State.
Pembentukan Kontrak
•
•
•
•
•
Penawaran (offer)
Kapan suatu penawaran menjadi efektif?
Acceptance
Does silence constitute as an acceptance?
What about acceptance with modifications?
Wanprestasi (breach of contract)
•
•
•
•
Fundamental breach
Avoidance
Requests for specific performance
Ganti rugi (remedies)
Excuses for Non-Performance
• Force Majeur
Exercises page 569
• Questions 2 - 10
Seller and Buyer’s Obligations
• Seller’s obligations
• Buyer’s obligations