Perspektif Hukum Internasional atas HAM

Perspektif Hukum
Internasional atas Hak Asasi
Manusia (HAM)
Hikmahanto Juwana
SH (UI), LL.M (Keio University, Jepang),
Ph.D (University of Nottingham, Inggris)
Guru Besar Hukum Internasional
Fakultas Hukum UI
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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PEMAHAMAN DASAR
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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Mengapa HAM dipermasalahkan
dalam Hukum Internasional?
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Bayangkan dua kejadian berikut:
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Bisakah Saudara melihat anak tetangga dipukuli
sampai sekarat oleh orang tuanya?
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Apa yang bisa Saudara lakukan, bila memanggil polisi
bukan suatu opsi?
Bila ada dua orang berkelahi perlukah aturan
sehingga perkelahian mereka dilakukan secara
terhormat?
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Kejadian 1
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Keinginan agar anak tidak diperlakukan
secara semena-mena oleh orang tua
merupakan keinginan dari semua pihak
Permasalahannya apa yang bisa kita lakukan
terhadap anak tetangga, mengingat anak
tersebut tidak berada di rumah kita?
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Apakah kita bisa begitu saja memasuki rumah
tetangga kita?
Bila bisa, apakah kita tidak akan dianggap
memasuki rumah orang lain tanpa izin?
Lalu apa legitimasi kita untuk mencampuri
urusan orang lain?
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Gambaran diatas dapat digunakan sebagai
analogi salah satu permasalahan HAM dalam
perspektif hukum internasional
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Anak merupakan warga negara suatu negara
Orang tua merupakan Pemerintah
Perlakuan secara semena-mena merupakan analogi dari
pelanggaran HAM
Rumah dapat diibaratkan sebagai kedaulatan negara
Kepedulian kita sebagai tetangga adalah kepedulian
negara lain
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Kejadian 2
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Bila ada orang berkelahi dan menggunakan segala
cara, apakah kondisi seperti ini dapat dibenarkan?
Tentu ini tidak dapat dibenarkan, disini diperlukan
aturan-aturan dan rambu-rambu yang harus dipatuhi
sehingga adu jotos seperti yang terjadi di ring tinju
Pertanyaannya adalah siapa yang membuat aturan
tersebut? Apakah masing-masing pihak yang
berkelahi?
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Gambaran diatas dapat memberi pencerahan
dalam hal Negara berperang satu sama lain
Orang yang berkelahi dianalogikan sebagai
Negara
Perkelahian adalah Perang
Pertanyaannya adalah apakah perang harus
dilakukan secara beradab atau tidak?
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Bila perang harus dilakukan secara beradab dimana
beradab-tidaknya perang ditentukan pada ada
tidaknya aturan maka aturan apa yang harus berlaku
dan siapa yang membentuknya?
Satu hal yang jelas, aturan yang dibuat oleh satu
negara tidak mungkin diberlakukan kepada negara
lain yang memiliki kedaulatan
Disinilah pentingnya Hukum Internasional
mengingat cabang ilmu hukum ini yang melandasi
hubungan antar negara
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Berdasarkan dua kejadian yang digambarkan,
yang menjadi rumusan masalah HAM dalam
konteks hukum internasional adalah:
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Rumusan Masalah Pertama
Bagaimana sebuah (atau sejumlah) negara
dapat membuat negara lain agar
menghormati HAM warga negaranya,
sementara ada prinsip ‘larangan campur
tangan (non-intervention principle)’ dimana
negara dilarang untuk terlibat dalam urusan
internal negara lain?
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Rumusan Masalah Kedua
Bagaimana agar dalam konflik bersenjata
ada aturan-aturan yang dipatuhi oleh pihakpihak yang berkonflik sehingga konflik
dianggap beradab dan menjunjung HAM
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Menjawab Rumusan Masalah Pertama
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Dalam rumusan masalah pertama, masalah
muncul karena dipicu pertentangan antara
keinginan agar orang dihormati harkat
martabatnya dimana saja di muka bumi ini
dengan masalah kedaulatan negara
Untuk menerobos sekat kedaulatan negara
maka dilakukan cara pembentukan instrumen
internasional yang mengatur masalah HAM
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Instrumen internasional dapat berbentuk:
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Deklarasi (bukan merupakan produk hukum
internasional); dan
Perjanjian internasional (merupakan produk
hukum internasional)
Instrumen internasional diikuti oleh Negara,
bukan individu ataupun entitas hukum lainnya
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Menjawab Rumusan Masalah Kedua
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Dalam rumusan masalah kedua, masalah
muncul karena dalam konflik bersenjata
diperlukan aturan berikut sanksi yang
bukan merupakan produk nasional
Aturan ini harus dapat disepakati oleh
negara-negara yang merupakan
masyarakat internasional
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Berdasarkan kebutuhan inilah sejak lama
masyarakat internasional membentuk
berbagai aturan yang dikualifikasikan sebagai
hukum internasional untuk diberlakukan pada
masa perang
Bentuk dari aturan ini adalah
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Perjanjian internasional; dan
Kebiasaan hukum internasional
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INSTRUMEN INTERNASIONAL
GUNA MENJUNJUNG HAM
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Katagorisasi Instrumen Internasional
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Bila diidentifikasi, telah banyak instrumen
internasional yang mengatur HAM
Berbagai instrumen internasional ini dapat
dilakukan katagori yang pada prinsipnya
meneguhkan HAM dari manusia, melindungi
mereka yang lemah, seperti kaum perempuan,
anak, tahanan dan mereka yang sedang
menghadapi proses hukum, kelompok
minoritas dan buruh
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International Bill of Human Rights
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights
International Covenant on Economic, Social and
Cultural Rights
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights
Second Optional Protocol to the International
Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the
abolition of the death penalty
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Human Rights Defenders
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Declaration on the Right and Responsibility
of Individuals, Groups and Organs of Society
to Promote and Protect Universally
Recognized Human Rights and Fundamental
Freedoms
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Right of self-determination
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Declaration on the Granting of Independence
to Colonial Countries and Peoples
General Assembly resolution 1803 (XVII) of
14 December 1962, "Permanent sovereignty
over natural resources"
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Prevention of discrimination
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United Nations Declaration on the
Elimination of All Forms of Racial
Discrimination
International Convention on the Elimination
of All Forms of Racial Discrimination
International Convention on the Suppression
and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid
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International Convention against Apartheid in Sports
Discrimination (Employment and Occupation)
Convention
Convention against Discrimination in Education
Protocol Instituting a Conciliation and Good Offices
Commission to be responsible for seeking a
settlement of any disputes which may arise between
States Parties to the Convention against
Discrimination in Education
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Equal Remuneration Convention
Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of
Intolerance and of Discrimination based on Religion
or Belief
Declaration on Fundamental Principles concerning
the Contribution to the Mass Media to Strengthening
Peace and International Understanding, to the
Promotion of Human Rights and to Countering
Racialism, Apartheid and Incitement to War
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Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice
Declaration on the Rights of Persons
Belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious
and Linguistic Minorities
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Rights of Women
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Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women
Convention on the Elimination of All Forms
of Discrimination against Women
Declaration on the Elimination of Violence
against Women
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Convention on the Political Rights of Women
Declaration on the Protection of Women and
Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the
Elimination of Discrimination against Women
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Rights of the Child
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Declaration on the Rights of the Child
Convention on the Rights of the Child
Optional protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on the involvement of
children in armed conflict
Optional protocol to the Convention on the
Rights of the Child on the sale of children,
child prostitution and child pornography
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Declaration on Social and Legal Principles
relating to the Protection and Welfare of
Children, with Special Reference to Foster
Placement and Adoption Nationally and
Internationally
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Slavery, Servitude, Forced Labour and
similar institutions and practices
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Slavery Convention
Protocol amending the Slavery Convention
Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of
Slavery, the Slave Trade,and Institutions and
Practices Similar to Slavery
Forced Labour Convention
Abolition of Forced Labour Convention
Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in
Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of
Others
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Human Rights in the Administration of
Justice
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Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of
Prisoners
Basic Principles for the Treatment of Prisoners
Body of Principles for the Protection of All Persons
under Any Form of Detention or Imprisonment
United Nations Rules for the Protection of Juveniles
Deprived of the Liberty
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Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from
Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture
and Ohter Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
or Punishment
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Principles on the Effective Investigation and
Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman
or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
Principles of Medical Ethics relevant to the Role of
Health Personnel,particularly Physicians, in the
Protection of Prisoners and Detainees against Torture
and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
or Punishment
Safeguards guaranteeing protection of the rights of
those facing the death penalty
Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials
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Basic Principles on the Use of Force and Firearms
by Law Enforcement Officials
Basic Principles on the Role of Lawyers
Guidelines on the Role of Prosecutors
United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for Noncustodial Measures (The Tokyo Rules)
United Nations Guidelines for the Prevention of
Juvenile Delinquency (The Riyadh Guidelines)
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United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the
Administration of Juvenile Justice ("The Beijing Rules")
Declaration of Basic Principles of Justice for Victims of
Crime and Abuse of Power
Basic Principles on the Independence of the Judiciary
Declaration on the Protection of All Persons from Enforced
Disappearances
Principles on the Effective Prevention and Investigation of
Extra-legal, Arbitrary and Summary Executions
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Freedom of Association
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Freedom of Association and Protection of the
Right to Organise Convention
Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining
Convention
Workers' Representatives Convention
Labour Relations (Public Service) Convention
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Employment
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Employment Policy Convention
Convention (No. 154) concerning the
Promotion of Collective Bargaining
Convention (No. 168) concerning
Employment Promotion and Protection
against Unemployment
Convention (No. 169) concerning Indigenous
and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries
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Marriage, Family and Youth
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Convention on Consent to Marriage,
Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration
of Marriages
Recommendation on Consent to Marriage,
Minimum Age for Marriage and Registration
of Marriages
Declaration on the Promotion among Youth of
the Ideals of Peace, Mutual Respect and
Understanding between Peoples
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Social welfare, progress and
development
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Declaration on Social Progress and Development
Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded
Persons
Principles for the protection of persons with mental
illness and the improvement of mental health care
Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger
and Malnutrition
Declaration on the Use of Scientific and
Technological Progress in the Interests of Peace and
for the Benefit of Mankind
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Guidelines for the Regulation of Computerized
Personal Data Files
Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons
Declaration on the Right of Peoples to Peace
Declaration on the Right to Development
International Convention on the Protection of the
Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of
Their Families
Universal Declaration on the Human Genome and
Human Rights (UNESCO)
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Right to enjoy culture, international
cultural development and co-operation
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Declaration of the Principles of International
Cultural Co-operation
Recommendation concerning Education for
International Understanding, Co-operation
and Peace and Education relating to Human
Rights and Fundamental Freedoms
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Nationality, Statelessness, Asylum and
Refugees
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Convention on the Nationality of Married Women
Convention on the Reduction of Statelessness
Convention relating to the Status of Stateless Persons
Convention relating to the Status of Refugees
Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees
Statute of the Office of the United Nations High
Commissioner for Refugees
Declaration on Territorial Asylum
Declaration on the Human Rights of Individuals Who are not
Nationals of the Country in which They Live
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Transformasi
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Berbagai instrumen internasional guna menjunjung
HAM bila hendak diberlakukan oleh Negara secara
nasional maka harus ditransformasikan ke dalam
hukum nasional
Transformasi bisa dilakukan dengan dua cara:
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Ikut sebagai peserta Perjanjian melalui proses ratifikasi
Mengadopsi ketentuan-ketentuan dalam instrumen
internasional ke dalam hukum nasional
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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Transformasi menjadi wajib dilaksanakan bila
perjanjian internasional guna menjunjung HAM
diikuti oleh suatu negara melalui proses ratifikasi
Pasca ratifikasi harus diikuti dengan tindakan
Pemerintah suatu Negara untuk mengamandemen
hukum nasional yang bertentangan dengan
perjanjian internasional, bahkan mengintrodusir
peaturan perundang-undangan yang belum ada
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Sementara tranformasi berupa pengadopsian
ketentuan dalam instrumen internasional
adalah tindakan Pemerintah untuk mengambil
ketentuan dalam instrumen internasional
secara sukarela ke dalam hukum nasional
Dalam proses adopsi tidak ada keharusan
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Tujuan Pembentukan Instrumen
Internasional
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Perlu disadari tujuan dibentuknya instrumen
internasional guna menjunjung HAM tidak
semata-mata untuk tujuan mulia agar harkat
martabat manusia di muka bumi dihormati,
tetapi juga kerap digunakan untuk tujuan
politik
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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Tujuan Politik
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Tujuan politik dilakukan untuk dua hal:
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Memaksa suatu negara untuk mau menghormati
HAM bagi warga negaranya
Ada kepentingan dari pihak yang memaksa
Negara Maju kerap memaksa Negara
Berkembang untuk mau menghormati HAM
karena di Negara Berkembang kerap terjadi
pelanggaran HAM terhadap warganya
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Negara Maju tidak jarang memaksa Negara
Berkembang untuk tunduk pada instrumen
internasional HAM karena memiliki agenda
tersembunyi (hidden agenda)
Bahkan Negara Maju kerap menerapkan
standar ganda pemberlakuan instrumen
internasional bila kepentingannya terganggu
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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PRODUK HUKUM
INTERNASIONAL BAGI
PERLINDUNGAN HAM DALAM
KONFLIK BERSENJATA
Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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Berbagai kebiasaan hukum internasional dan
perjanjian internasional telah lama ada untuk
mengatur konflik bersenjata sehingga konflik tidak
melanggar harkat martabat manusia
Produk hukum yang ada dapat dibedakan dalam dua
katagori:
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Pelaku yang melakukan tindakan diluar batas
kemanusiaan terhadap orang-orang yang tidak terlibat
dalam konflik
Aturan yang berlaku bagi pihak-pihak yang terlibat dalam
konflik (ius in bello)
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War Crimes and Crimes against
Humanity, including Genocide
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Convention on the Prevention and Punishment
of the Crime of Genocide
Convention on the Non-Applicability of
Statutory Limitations to War Crimes and
Crimes against Humanity
Principles of international co-operation in the
detection, arrest, extradition and punishment
of persons guilty of war crimes and crimes
against humanity
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Humanitarian law
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Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of
the Condition of the Wounded and Sick in
Armed Forces in the Field
Geneva Convention for the Amelioration of
the Condition of Wounded, Sick and
Shipwrecked Members of Armed Forces at
Sea
Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment
of Prisoners of War
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Geneva Convention relative to the Protection of
Civilian Persons in Time of War
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12
August 1949, and relating to the Protection of
Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol
I)
Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12
August 1949, and relating to the Protection of
Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts
(Protocol II)
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Berbeda dengan instrumen internasional untuk
menjunjung HAM yang substansi ketentuannya
ditujukan pada Negara, produk hukum internasional
bagi perlindungan HAM dalam konflik bersenjata
lebih ditujukan pada individu
Individu dapat dipersalahkan melakukan kejahatan
internasional, disini muncul konsep individu sebagai
subyek hukum internasional
Kejahatan internasional yang dikenal dalam Statuta
Roma dalam UU No. 26/2000 disebut sebagai
“Pelanggara HAM Berat”
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Copyright by Hikmahanto Juwana 2005 (c)
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