Indonesian National
Revolution
The Indonesian National Revolution, or
Indonesian War of Independence
(Indonesian: Perang Kemerdekaan
Indonesia; Dutch: Indonesische
Onafhankelijkheidsoorlog), was an armed
conflict and diplomatic struggle between
the Republic of Indonesia and the Dutch
Empire and an internal social revolution
during postwar and postcolonial
Indonesia. It took place between
Indonesia's declaration of independence in
1945 and the Netherlands' recognition of
Indonesia's independence at the end of
1949.
Indonesian National Revolution
Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia
Part of the Decolonisation of Asia and Cold War
The Dutch Queen Juliana signs the document
transferring sovereignty to the United States of
Indonesia in The Hague, 27 December 1949
Date
17 August 1945 – 27 December
1949
Location
Indonesia
Result
Dutch military victory[2][3]
Indonesian political victory[4]
Dutch recognition of the United
States of Indonesia in the DutchIndonesian Round Table Conference
Belligerents
Indonesia
PDRI
TNI
Japanese volunteers
(from 1946)
Indian defectors
Netherlands (from
1946)
Dutch East Indies
KNIL
NICA
Autonomous Federal
(from 1946)
States (merged to
Diplomatic support by:
United States of
United Kingdom
(from 1946)[1]
Indonesia in 1949)
East Indonesia
Great Dayak
Pasundan
Minahasa
twaalfde
provincie van
Nederlands
movement
Pontianak
Sultanate
Pao An Tui
Legion of Ratu Adil
British Empire /
United Kingdom
(until 1946)
India
Australia
Japan (until 1946)
Commanders and leaders
Sukarno
Simon Spoor
Mohammad Hatta
Hubertus van Mook
Mohammad Hatta
Hubertus van Mook
Soedirman
Willem Franken
Oerip Soemohardjo
Clement Attlee
Hamengkubuwana IX
Sir Philip Christison
Syafruddin
T.E.D Kelly
Prawiranegara
Tjokorda Sukawati
Sutan Sjahrir
Sultan Hamid II
Soetomo
Raymond Westerling
Soeharto
Ignatius Slamet
Riyadi
Abdul Haris Nasution
Mustopo
Alexander Evert
Kawilarang
John Lie Tjeng Tjoan
Johannes
Latuharhary
I Gusti Ngurah Rai
Tjilik Riwut
Tjilik Riwut
Achmad Tahir
Strength
Republican Army:
Royal Dutch Army:
195,000
20,000 (initial) - 180,000
Pemuda:
(peak)
Estimated 160,000
Royal Dutch East Indies
Former Imperial
Army:
Japanese Army
60,000
volunteers:
British:
3,000
30,000+ (peak)[5]
'
Casualties and losses
45,000 to 100,000
1,200 British military
armed Indonesian
deaths[6]
casualties
6,125 Dutch military
deaths[7]
97.421 civilian deaths by the hands of Indonesian
[8]
and Dutch troops[8]
The four-year struggle involved sporadic
but bloody armed conflict, internal
Indonesian political and communal
upheavals, and two major international
diplomatic interventions. Dutch military
forces (and, for a while, the forces of the
World War II Allies) were able to control
the major towns, cities and industrial
assets in Republican heartlands on Java
and Sumatra but could not control the
countryside. By 1949, international
pressure on the Netherlands and the
partial military stalemate became such
that it recognised Indonesian
independence.[9]
The revolution marked the end of the
colonial administration of the Dutch East
Indies, except for Netherlands New
Guinea. It also significantly changed ethnic
castes as well as reducing the power of
many of the local rulers (raja). It did not
significantly improve the economic or
political fortune of the majority of the
population, although a few Indonesians
were able to gain a larger role in
commerce.
Background
The Indonesian independence movement
began in May 1908, which is
commemorated as the "Day of National
Awakening" (Indonesian: Hari Kebangkitan
Nasional). Indonesian nationalism and
movements supporting independence
from Dutch colonialism, such as Budi
Utomo, the Indonesian National Party
(PNI), Sarekat Islam and the Indonesian
Communist Party (PKI), grew rapidly in the
first half of the 20th century. Budi Utomo,
Sarekat Islam and others pursued
strategies of co-operation by joining the
Dutch initiated Volksraad ("People's
Council") in the hope that Indonesia would
be granted self-rule.[10] Others chose a
non-cooperative strategy demanding the
freedom of self-government from the
Dutch East Indies colony.[11] The most
notable of these leaders were Sukarno and
Mohammad Hatta, two students and
nationalist leaders who had benefited from
the educational reforms of the Dutch
Ethical Policy.
The occupation of Indonesia by Japan for
three and a half years during World War II
was a crucial factor in the subsequent
revolution. The Netherlands had little
ability to defend its colony against the
Japanese army, and within only three
months of their initial attacks, the
Japanese had occupied the Dutch East
Indies. In Java, and to a lesser extent in
Sumatra (Indonesia's two dominant
islands), the Japanese spread and
encouraged nationalist sentiment.
Although this was done more for
Japanese political advantage than from
altruistic support of Indonesian
independence, this support created new
Indonesian institutions (including local
neighbourhood organisations) and
elevated political leaders such as Sukarno.
Just as significantly for the subsequent
revolution, the Japanese destroyed and
replaced much of the Dutch-created
economic, administrative, and political
infrastructure.[12]
On 7 September 1944, with the war going
badly for the Japanese, Prime Minister
Koiso promised independence for
Indonesia, but no date was set.[13] For
supporters of Sukarno, this announcement
was seen as vindication for his
collaboration with the Japanese.[14]
Independence declared
Under pressure from radical and
politicised pemuda ('youth') groups,
Sukarno and Hatta proclaimed Indonesian
independence, on 17 August 1945, two
days after the Japanese Emperor's
surrender in the Pacific. The following day,
the Central Indonesian National
Committee (KNIP) elected Sukarno as
President, and Hatta as VicePresident.[15][16][17]
PROCLAM
ATION
We, the
people of
Indonesia,
hereby
declare the
independe
nce of
Indonesia.
Matters
which
concern
the
transfer of
power etc.
will be
executed
by careful
means and
in the
shortest
possible
time.
Djakarta,
17 August
1945
In the
name of
the people
of
Indonesia,
[signed]
Soekarno
—Hatta
(Translatio
n by the
Ministry of
Foreign
Affairs,
October
1948)[18]
Revolution and Bersiap
Bendera Pusaka, the first Indonesian flag, is raised on
17 August 1945.
It was mid-September before news of the
declaration of independence spread to the
outer islands, and many Indonesians far
from the capital Jakarta did not believe it.
As the news spread, most Indonesians
came to regard themselves as proRepublican, and a mood of revolution
swept across the country.[19] External
power had shifted; it would be weeks
before Allied Forces shipping entered
Indonesia (owing in part to boycotts and
strikes, in Australia, on coaling, loading
and manning Dutch shipping from
Australia where the Netherlands East
Indies Government in exile was based).
These strikes were only fully broken in July
1946.[20] The Japanese, on the other hand,
were required by the terms of the
surrender to both lay down their arms and
maintain order; a contradiction that some
resolved by handing weapons to
Japanese-trained Indonesians.[21][22]
The resulting power vacuums in the weeks
following the Japanese surrender, created
an atmosphere of uncertainty, but also one
of opportunity for the Republicans.[21]
Many pemuda joined pro-Republic struggle
groups (badan perjuangan). The most
disciplined were soldiers from the
Japanese-formed but disbanded Giyugun
(PETA) and Heiho groups. Many groups
were undisciplined, due to both the
circumstances of their formation and what
they perceived as revolutionary spirit. In
the first weeks, Japanese troops often
withdrew from urban areas to avoid
confrontations.[23]
By September 1945, control of major
infrastructure installations, including
railway stations and trams in Java's
largest cities, had been taken over by
Republican pemuda who encountered little
Japanese resistance.[23] To spread the
revolutionary message, pemuda set up
their own radio stations and newspapers,
and graffiti proclaimed the nationalist
sentiment. On most islands, struggle
committees and militia were set up.[24]
Republican newspapers and journals were
common in Jakarta, Yogyakarta, and
Surakarta, which fostered a generation of
writers known as angkatan 45 ('generation
of 45') many of whom believed their work
could be part of the revolution.[23]
Republican leaders struggled to come to
terms with popular sentiment; some
wanted passionate armed struggle; others
a more reasoned approach. Some leaders,
such as the leftist Tan Malaka, spread the
idea that this was a revolutionary struggle
to be led and won by the Indonesian
pemuda. Sukarno and Hatta, in contrast,
were more interested in planning out a
government and institutions to achieve
independence through diplomacy.[25] Prorevolution demonstrations took place in
large cities, including one led by Tan
Malaka in Jakarta with over 200,000
people, which Sukarno and Hatta, fearing
violence, successfully quelled.
By September 1945, many of the selfproclaimed pemuda, who were ready to die
for '100% freedom', were getting impatient.
It was common for ethnic 'out-groups' –
Dutch internees, Eurasian, Ambonese and
Chinese – and anyone considered to be a
spy, to be subjected to intimidation,
kidnap, robbery, murder and organised
massacres. Such attacks would continue
throughout the course of the revolution,
but were most present during the 1945-46
period, which is known as the
Bersiap.[26][27][28]
After the Bersiap in 1947 Dutch authorities
attempted to retrieve the bodies of the
victims and several survivors of the period
provided legal testimony to the Attorney
General office. Due to continued
revolutionary warfare few bodies were
found and few cases came to court.
Around 3,500 graves of Bersiap victims
can be found in the Kembang Kuning war
cemetery in Surabaya and elsewhere.
The Simpang Society Club Surabaya was
appropriated by the Pemudas of the Partai
Rakyat Indonesia (P.R.I.) and made into the
headquarters of P.R.I. commander
Sutomo, who personally supervised the
summary executions of hundreds of
civilians. An archived eyewitness
testimony of the events of 22 October
1945 states:
Before each execution Sutomo
mockingly asked the crowd
what should be done with this
"Musuh (enemy) of the people".
The crowd yelled "Bunuh!" (kill!)
after which the executioner
named Rustam decapitated the
victim with one stroke of his
sword. The victim was then left
to the bloodthirst of boys 10, 11
and 12 years old. ...[who] further
mutilated the body." "Women
were tied to the tree in the back
yard and pierced through the
genitals with "bambu runcing"
(bamboo spears) until they died.
On Sutomo's orders the decapitated
bodies were disposed of in the sea, the
women were thrown in the river.[29] The
death toll of the Bersiap period runs into
the tens of thousands. The bodies of 3,600
Indo-Europeans have been identified as
killed. However more than 20,000
registered Indo-European civilians were
abducted and never returned. The
Indonesian revolutionaries lost at least
20,000, often young, fighting men.
Estimates of the number of Indonesian
fighters killed in the lead up and during the
Battle of Surabaya range from 6,300 to
15,000.[30] The Japanese forces lost
around 1,000 soldiers and the British
forces registered 660 soldiers, mostly
British Indians, as killed (with a similar
number missing in action).[31] The actual
Dutch military were hardly involved,[32] as
they only started to return to Indonesia in
March and April 1946.
Formation of the Republican
government
Republic of Indonesia
Republik Indonesia
1945–1949
Flag
Anthem: Indonesia Raya
Capital
Djakarta (1945)
Yogyakarta (1946–
1948)
Common languages
Indonesian
Government
Presidential republic
(Aug 1945–Nov 1945)
Parliamentary republic
(1945–1949)
President
• 1945–1949
Sukarno
Vice-President
• 1945–1949
Mohammad Hatta
Prime Minister
• 1945–1947
Sutan Sjahrir
• 1947–1948
Amir Sjarifuddin
• 1948–1949
Mohammad Hatta
Legislature
Central Indonesian
National Committee
Historical era
• Independence
Cold War
17 August 1945
proclaimed
• Linggadjati
Agreement
15 November 1946
• Operation Product
July–August 1947
• Renville Agreement
17 January 1948
• Operation Kraai
19 December 1948
• Round Table
August–November
Conference
• Transfer of
1949
27 December 1949
sovereignty
Currency
Oeang Republik
Indonesia
Uang Republik
Indonesia Propinsi
Sumatera (only in
Sumatra)
ISO 3166 code
Preceded by
Japanese-occupied
ID
Succeeded by
United States of
Indonesia
Dutch East Indies
Today part of
Indonesia
By the end of August 1946, a central
Republican government had been
established in Jakarta. It adopted a
constitution drafted during the Japanese
occupation by the Preparatory Committee
for Indonesian Independence. With general
elections yet to be held, a Central
Indonesian National Committee (KNIP)
was appointed to assist the President.
Similar committees were established at
provincial and regency levels.
Questions of allegiance immediately arose
amongst indigenous rulers. Central
Javanese principalities, for example,
immediately declared themselves
Republican, while many raja ('rulers') of the
outer islands, who had been enriched from
their support of the Dutch, were less
enthusiastic. Such reluctance among
many outer islands was sharpened by the
radical, non-aristocratic, and sometimes
Islamic nature of the Java-centric
Republican leadership. Support did,
however, come from South Sulawesi
(including the King of Bone, who still
recalled battles against the Dutch from
early in the century), and from
Makassarese and Bugis raja, who
supported the Republican Governor of
Jakarta, a Menadonese Christian. Many
Balinese raja accepted Republican
authority.[33]
Fearing the Dutch would attempt to reestablish their authority over Indonesia,
the new Republican Government and its
leaders moved quickly to strengthen the
fledgling administration. Within Indonesia,
the newly formed government, although
enthusiastic, was fragile and focused in
Java (where focused at all). It was rarely
and loosely in contact with the outer
islands,[34] which had more Japanese
troops (particularly in Japanese naval
areas), less sympathetic Japanese
commanders, and fewer Republican
leaders and activists.[35] In November
1945, a parliamentary form of government
was established and Sjahrir was appointed
Prime Minister.
In the week following the Japanese
surrender, the Giyugun (PETA) and Heiho
groups were disbanded by the
Japanese.[36] Command structures and
membership vital for a national army were
consequently dismantled. Thus, rather
than being formed from a trained, armed,
and organised army, the Republican armed
forces began to grow in September from
usually younger, less trained groups built
around charismatic leaders.[33] Creating a
rational military structure that was
obedient to central authority from such
disorganisation, was one of the major
problems of the revolution, a problem that
remains through to contemporary times.[9]
In the self-created Indonesian army,
Japanese-trained Indonesian officers
prevailed over those trained by the Dutch.
A thirty-year-old former school teacher,
Sudirman, was elected 'commander-inchief' at the first meeting of Division
Commanders in Yogyakarta on 12
November 1945.[37]
Allied counter revolution
The Dutch accused Sukarno and Hatta of
collaborating with the Japanese, and
denounced the Republic as a creation of
Japanese fascism.[14] The Dutch East
Indies administration had just received a
ten million dollar loan from the United
States to finance its return to Indonesia.[38]
Allied occupation
The Netherlands, however, was critically
weakened from World War II in Europe and
did not return as a significant military
force until early 1946. The Japanese and
members of the Allied forces reluctantly
agreed to act as caretakers.[25] As US
forces were focusing on the Japanese
home islands, the archipelago was put
under the jurisdiction of British Admiral
Earl Louis Mountbatten, the Supreme
Allied Commander, South East Asia
Command. Allied enclaves already existed
in Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo),
Morotai (Maluku) and parts of Irian Jaya;
Dutch administrators had already returned
to these areas.[35] In the Japanese navy
areas, the arrival of Allied troops quickly
prevented revolutionary activities where
Australian troops, followed by Dutch
troops and administrators, took the
Japanese surrender (except for Bali and
Lombok).[39] Due to the lack of strong
resistance, two Australian Army divisions
succeeded in occupying eastern
Indonesia.[40]
Indian and British troops move cautiously along a
jungle track round the town of Gresik.
The British were charged with restoring
order and civilian government in Java. The
Dutch took this to mean pre-war colonial
administration and continued to claim
sovereignty over Indonesia.[25] The British
and Indian troops did not, however, land on
Java to accept the Japanese surrender
until late September 1945. Lord
Mountbatten's immediate tasks included
the repatriation of some 300,000
Japanese, and freeing prisoners of war. He
did not want, nor did he have the
resources, to commit his troops to a long
struggle to regain Indonesia for the
Dutch.[41] The first British troops reached
Jakarta in late September 1945, and
arrived in the cities of Medan (North
Sumatra), Padang (West Sumatra),
Palembang (South Sumatra), Semarang
(Central Java) and Surabaya (East Java) in
October. In an attempt to avoid clashes
with Indonesians, the British commander
Lieutenant General Sir Philip Christison,
diverted soldiers of the former Dutch
colonial army to eastern Indonesia, where
Dutch reoccupation was proceeding
smoothly.[39] Tensions mounted as Allied
troops entered Java and Sumatra; clashes
broke out between Republicans and their
perceived enemies, namely Dutch
prisoners, Dutch colonial troops (KNIL),
Chinese, Indo-Europeans and Japanese.[39]
The first stages of warfare were initiated in
October 1945 when, in accordance with
the terms of their surrender, the Japanese
tried to re-establish the authority they had
relinquished to Indonesians in the towns
and cities. Japanese military police killed
Republican pemuda in Pekalongan (Central
Java) on 3 October, and Japanese troops
drove Republican pemuda out of Bandung
in West Java and handed the city to the
British, but the fiercest fighting involving
the Japanese was in Semarang. On 14
October, British forces began to occupy
the city. Retreating Republican forces
retaliated by killing between 130 and 300
Japanese prisoners they were holding.
Five hundred Japanese and 2,000
Indonesians had been killed and the
Japanese had almost captured the city six
days later when British forces arrived.[39]
The Allies repatriated the remaining
Japanese troops and civilians to Japan,
although about 1,000 elected to remain
behind and later assisted Republican
forces in fighting for independence.[42]
Destruction in Bandung's Chinese quarter
The British subsequently decided to
evacuate the 10,000 Indo-Europeans and
European internees in the volatile Central
Java interior. British detachments sent to
the towns of Ambarawa and Magelang
encountered strong Republican resistance
and used air attacks against the
Indonesians. Sukarno arranged a ceasefire
on 2 November, but by late November
fighting had resumed and the British
withdrew to the coast.[39][43] Republican
attacks against Allied and alleged proDutch civilians reached a peak in
November and December, with 1,200 killed
in Bandung as the pemuda returned to the
offensive.[44] In March 1946, departing
Republicans responded to a British
ultimatum for them to leave the city of
Bandung by deliberately burning down
much of the southern half of the city in
what is popularly known in Indonesia as
the "Bandung Sea of Fire". The last British
troops left Indonesia in November 1946,
but by this time 55,000 Dutch troops had
landed in Java.
Battle of Surabaya
A soldier of an Indian armoured regiment examines a
Marmon-Herrington CTLS light tank used by
Indonesian nationalists and captured by British forces
during the fighting in Surabaya.
The Battle of Surabaya was the heaviest
single battle of the revolution and became
a national symbol of Indonesian
resistance.[45] Pemuda groups in Surabaya,
the second largest city in Indonesia, seized
arms and ammunition from the Japanese
and set up two new organisations; the
Indonesia National Committee (KNI) and
the People's Security Council (BKR). By the
time the Allied forces arrived at the end of
October 1945, the pemuda foothold in
Surabaya city was described as "a strong
unified fortress".[46]
The city
itself was in
pandemoni
um. There
In September and October
1945 Europeans and proDutch Eurasians were
attacked and killed by
was bloody
Indonesian mobs.[48]
hand-to-
Ferocious fighting erupted
hand
when 6,000 British Indian
fighting on
troops landed in the city.
every street
Sukarno and Hatta
corner.
negotiated a ceasefire
Bodies
between the Republicans
were
and the British forces led
strewn
by Brigadier Mallaby.
everywhere.
Following the killing of
Decapitated
Mallaby on 30 October,[46]
,
the British sent more
dismember
troops into the city from
ed trunks
10 November under the
lay piled
cover of air attacks.
one on top
of the
other...Indo
nesians
were
shooting
and
stabbing
Although the European
forces largely captured the
city in three days, the
poorly armed Republicans
fought on until 29
November[49] and
thousands died as the
and
population fled to the
murdering
countryside.
wildly
—
Sukarno[47]
Despite the military defeat
suffered by the
Republicans and a loss of
manpower and weaponry
that would severely hamper Republican
forces for the rest of the revolution, the
battle and defence mounted by the
Indonesians galvanised the nation in
support of independence and helped
garner international attention. For the
Dutch, it removed any doubt that the
Republic was a well-organised resistance
with popular support.[45] It also convinced
Britain to lie on the side of neutrality in the
revolution,[45] and within a few years,
Britain would support the Republican
cause in the United Nations.
Installing the Netherlands
Indies Civil Administration
Javanese revolutionaries armed with bamboo spears
and a few Japanese rifles, 1946
With British assistance, the Dutch landed
their Netherlands Indies Civil
Administration (NICA) forces in Jakarta
and other key centres. Republican sources
reported 8,000 deaths up to January 1946
in the defence of Jakarta, but they could
not hold the city.[41] The Republican
leadership thus established themselves in
the city of Yogyakarta with the crucial
support of the new sultan, Sri Sultan
Hamengkubuwono IX. Yogyakarta went on
to play a leading role in the revolution,
which would result in the city being
granted its own Special Territory status.[50]
In Bogor, near Jakarta, and in Balikpapan
in Kalimantan, Republican officials were
imprisoned. In preparation for the Dutch
occupation of Sumatra, its largest cities,
Palembang and Medan, were bombed. In
December 1946, Special Forces Depot
(DST), led by commando and counterinsurgency expert Captain Raymond "Turk"
Westerling, were accused of pacifying the
southern Sulawesi region using arbitrary
terror techniques, which were copied by
other anti-Republicans. As many as 3,000
Republican militia and their supporters
were killed in a few weeks.[51]
On Java and Sumatra, the Dutch found
military success in cities and major towns,
but they were unable to subdue the
villages and countryside. On the outer
islands (including Bali), Republican
sentiment was not as strong, at least
among the elite. They were consequently
occupied by the Dutch with comparative
ease, and autonomous states were set up
by the Dutch. The largest, the State of East
Indonesia (NIT), encompassed most of
eastern Indonesia, and was established in
December 1946, with its administrative
capital in Makassar.
Diplomacy and military
offensives
Linggadjati Agreement
The Linggadjati Agreement, brokered by
the British and concluded in November
1946, saw the Netherlands recognise the
Republic as the de facto authority over
Java, Madura, and Sumatra. Both parties
agreed to the formation of the United
States of Indonesia by 1 January 1949, a
semi-autonomous federal state with the
monarch of the Netherlands at its head.
The Republican-controlled Java and
Sumatra would be one of its states,
alongside areas that were generally under
stronger Dutch influence, including
southern Kalimantan, and the "Great East",
which consisted of Sulawesi, Maluku, the
Lesser Sunda Islands, and Western New
Guinea. The Central National Committee
of Indonesia (KNIP) did not ratify the
agreement until February 1947, and
neither the Republic nor the Dutch were
satisfied with it.[9] On 25 March 1947 the
Lower House of the Dutch parliament
ratified a stripped down version of the
treaty, which was not accepted by the
Republic.[52] Both sides soon accused the
other of violating the agreement.
Operation
Product
At midnight on 20 July
1947, the Dutch launched
a major military offensive
called Operatie Product,
with the intent of
...[the
Republic]
became
increasingly
disorganise
d internally;
party
leaders
conquering the Republic.
fought with
Claiming violations of the
party
Linggajati Agreement, the
leaders;
Dutch described the
government
campaign as politionele
s were over
acties ("police actions") to
thrown and
restore law and order. This
used to be the task of the
KNIL. However, at the time
the majority of the Dutch
troops in Indonesia
belonged to the Royal
Netherlands Army. Soon
after the end of World War
replaced by
others;
armed
groups
acted on
their own in
local
conflicts;
certain
II, 25,000 volunteers
parts of the
(among them 5,000
Republic
marines) had been sent
never had
overseas. They were later
contact
followed by larger
with the
numbers of conscripts
centre-they
from the Netherlands. In
just drifted
the offensive, Dutch forces
along in
drove Republican troops
out of parts of Sumatra,
and East and West Java.
The Republicans were
confined to the Yogyakarta
region of Java. To
maintain their force in
Java, now numbering
their own
way. The
whole
situation
deteriorate
d to such
an extent
that the
Dutch
100,000 troops, the Dutch
Governmen
gained control of lucrative
t was
Sumatran plantations, and
obliged to
oil and coal installations,
decide that
and in Java, control of all
no progress
deep water ports.
could be
made
before law
and order
were
restored
A Dutch military column during
Operation Product
sufficiently
to make
intercourse
International reaction to
between
the Dutch actions was
the
negative. Neighbouring
different
Australia and newly
parts of
independent India were
Indonesia
particularly active in
possible,
supporting the Republic's
and to
cause in the UN, as was
guarantee
the Soviet Union and, most
the safety
significantly, the United
of people of
States. Dutch ships
different
continued to be boycotted
from loading and
unloading by Australian
waterside workers, a
blockade that began in
September 1945. The
United Nations Security
Council became directly
involved in the conflict,
establishing a Good
political
opinions.
— former
East Indies
Governor H.
J. van
Mook's
justification
for the first
Dutch
Offices Committee to
sponsor further
"police
action".[53]
negotiations, making the
Dutch diplomatic position
particularly difficult. A ceasefire, called for
by UNSC resolution 27, was ordered by the
Dutch and Sukarno on 4 August 1947.[54]
During the military action, on 9 December
1947 Dutch troops killed many civilians in
the village of Rawagede (now Balongsari
in Karawang, West Java).
Renville Agreement
The Van Mook line in Java. Areas in red were under
Republican control.[55]
The United Nations Security Council
brokered the Renville Agreement in an
attempt to rectify the collapsed Linggarjati
Agreement. The agreement was ratified in
January 1948 and recognised a cease-fire
along the so-called 'Van Mook line'; an
artificial line which connected the most
advanced Dutch positions.[56] Many
Republican positions, however, were still
held behind the Dutch lines. The
agreement also required referenda to be
held on the political future of the Dutch
held areas. The apparent reasonableness
of Republicans garnered much important
American goodwill.[54]
Diplomatic efforts between the
Netherlands and the Republic continued
throughout 1948 and 1949. Political
pressures, both domestic and
international, hindered Dutch attempts to
decide upon objectives. Similarly,
Republican leaders faced great difficulty in
persuading their people to accept
diplomatic concessions. By July 1948
negotiations were in deadlock and the
Netherlands pushed unilaterally towards
Van Mook's federal Indonesia concept.
The new federal states of South Sumatra
and East Java were created, although
neither had a viable support base.[57] The
Netherlands set up the Bijeenkomst voor
Federaal Overleg (BFO) (or Federal
Consultative Assembly), a body
comprising the leadership of the federal
states, and charged with the formation of
a United States of Indonesia and an
interim government by the end of 1948.
The Dutch plans, however, had no place for
the Republic unless it accepted a minor
role already defined for it. Later plans
included Java and Sumatra but dropped all
mention of the Republic. The main sticking
point in the negotiations was the balance
of power between the Netherlands High
Representative and the Republican
forces.[58]
Mutual distrust between the Netherlands
and the Republic hindered negotiations.
The Republic feared a second major Dutch
offensive, while the Dutch objected to
continued Republican activity on the Dutch
side of the Renville line. In February 1948
the Siliwangi Division (35,000 men) of the
Republican Army, led by Nasution,
marched from West Java to Central Java;
the relocation was intended to ease
internal Republican tensions involving the
Division in the Surakarta area. The
Battalion, however, clashed with Dutch
troops while crossing Mount Slamet, and
the Dutch believed it was part of a
systematic troop movement across the
Renville Line. The fear of such incursions
actually succeeding, along with apparent
Republican undermining of the Dutchestablished Pasundan state and negative
reports, led to the Dutch leadership
increasingly seeing itself as losing
control.[59]
Operation Crow and General
Offensive (Serangan Oemoem)
We have
been
attacked.
... The
Dutch
Two men with rope around their
necks are handcuffed by TNI officers
on September 1948 in Madiun,
Indonesia.
governm
ent have
betrayed
the
cease-fire
Frustrated at negotiations
with the Republic and
believing it weakened by
both the Darul Islam and
Madiun insurgencies, the
Dutch launched a military
offensive on 19 December
1948 which it termed
agreeme
nt. All the
Armed
Forces
will carry
out the
plans
which
have
'Operatie Kraai' (Operation
been
Crow). By the following day it
decided
had conquered the city of
on to
Yogyakarta, the location of
confront
the temporary Republican
the Dutch
capital. By the end of
attack
—
December, all major
Republican held cities in
Java and Sumatra were in
General
Sudirman
,
Dutch hands.[2] The
Republican President, Vice-
broadcas
President, and all but six
t from his
Republic of Indonesia
sickbed.[60]
ministers were captured by
Dutch troops and exiled on Bangka Island
off the east coast of Sumatra. In areas
surrounding Yogyakarta and Surakarta,
Republican forces refused to surrender
and continued to wage a guerrilla war
under the leadership of Republican military
chief of staff General Sudirman who had
escaped the Dutch offensives. An
emergency Republican government, the
Pemerintahan Darurat Republik Indonesia
(PDRI), was established in West Sumatra.
Although Dutch forces conquered the
towns and cities in Republican heartlands
on Java and Sumatra, they could not
control villages and the countryside.[61]
Republican troops and militia led by Lt.
Colonel (later President) Suharto attacked
Dutch positions in Yogyakarta at dawn on
1 March 1949. The Dutch were expelled
from the city for six hours but
reinforcements were brought in from the
nearby cities of Ambarawa and Semarang
that afternoon.[61] Indonesian fighters
retreated at 12:00 pm and the Dutch reentered the city. The Indonesian attack,
later known in Indonesia as Serangan
Oemoem (new spelling: Serangan Umum '1
March General Offensive'), is
commemorated by a large monument in
Yogyakarta. A large-scale attack attack
against Dutch troops in Surakarta on 10
August the same year resulted in
republican forces holding the city for two
days.[62]
Once again, international opinion of the
Dutch military campaigns was one of
outrage, significantly in both the United
Nations and the United States. In January
1949, the United Nations Security Council
passed a resolution demanding the
reinstatement of the Republican
government.[14] United States aid
specifically earmarked for Dutch Indonesia
was immediately cancelled and pressure
mounted within the US Congress for all
United States aid to be cut off. This
included Marshall Plan funds vital for
Dutch post-World War II rebuilding that
had so far totalled $US 1 billion.[63] The
Netherlands Government had spent an
amount equivalent to almost half of this
funding their campaigns in Indonesia. That
United States aid could be used to fund "a
senile and ineffectual imperialism"
encouraged many key voices in the United
States – including those amongst the US
Republican Party – and from within
American churches and NGOs to speak
out in support of Indonesian
independence.[4]
Internal turmoil
Social revolutions
The so-called 'social revolutions' following
the independence proclamation were
challenges to the Dutch-established
Indonesian social order, and to some
extent a result of the resentment against
Japanese-imposed policies. Across the
country, people rose up against traditional
aristocrats and village heads and
attempted to exert popular ownership of
land and other resources.[64] The majority
of the social revolutions ended quickly; in
most cases the challenges to the social
order were quashed.[65]
A culture of violence rooted in the deep
conflicts that split the countryside during
the revolution would repeatedly erupt
throughout the whole second half of the
20th century.[65] The term 'social
revolution' has been applied to a range of
mostly violent activities of the left that
included both altruistic attempts to
organise real revolution and simple
expressions of revenge, resentment and
assertions of power. Violence was one of
the many lessons learned during the
Japanese occupation, and figures
identified as 'feudal', including kings,
regents, or simply the wealthy, were often
attacked and sometimes beheaded. Rape
became a weapon against 'feudal'
women.[64] In the coastal sultanates of
Sumatra and Kalimantan, for example,
sultans and others whose authority had
been shored-up by the Dutch, were
attacked as soon as Japanese authority
left. The secular local lords of Aceh, who
had been the foundation of Dutch rule,
were executed, although most of
Indonesia's sultanates fell back into Dutch
hands.
Most Indonesians lived in fear and
uncertainty, particularly a significant
proportion of the population who
supported the Dutch or who remained
under Dutch control. The popular
revolutionary cry 'Freedom or Death' was
often interpreted to justify killings under
claimed Republican authority. Traders
were often in particularly difficult
positions. On the one hand, they were
pressured by Republicans to boycott all
sales to the Dutch; on the other hand,
Dutch police could be merciless in their
efforts to stamp out smugglers on which
the Republican economy depended. In
some areas, the term kedaulatan rakyat
('exercising the sovereignty of the people')
– which is mentioned in the preamble of
the Constitution and used by pemuda to
demand pro-active policies from leaders –
came to be used not only in the
demanding of free goods, but also to
justify extortion and robbery. Chinese
merchants, in particular, were often forced
to keep their goods at artificially low prices
under threat of death.[64][66]
Communist and Islamist
insurgencies
On 18 September 1948 an 'Indonesian
Soviet Republic' was declared in Madiun,
east of Yogyakarta, by members of the PKI
and the Indonesian Socialist Party (PSI).
Judging the time right for a proletarian
uprising, they intended it to be a rallying
point for revolt against "Sukarno-Hatta, the
slaves of the Japanese and America".[21]
Madiun however was won back by
Republican forces within a few weeks and
the insurgency leader, Musso, killed. RM
Suryo, the governor of East Java, as well
as several police officers and religious
leaders, were killed by the rebels. This
ended a distraction for the revolution,[21]
and it turned vague American sympathies
based on anti-colonial sentiments into
diplomatic support. Internationally, the
Republic was now seen as being staunchly
anti-communist and a potential ally in the
emerging global Cold War between the
American-led 'free world' and the Sovietled bloc.[67]
Members of the Republican Army who had
come from Indonesian Hizbullah felt
betrayed by the Indonesian Government. In
May 1948, they declared a break-away
regime, the Negara Islam Indonesia
(Indonesian Islamic State), better known
as Darul Islam. Led by an Islamic mystic,
Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwirjo, Darul
Islam sought to establish Indonesia as an
Islamic theocracy. At the time, the
Republican Government did not respond,
as they were focused on the threat from
the Dutch. Some leaders of Masjumi
sympathised with the rebellion. After the
Republic regained all territories in 1950,
the government took the Darul Islam threat
seriously, especially after some provinces
declared that they had joined Darul Islam.
The rebellion was put down in 1962.
Transfer of sovereignty
The resilience of
Indonesian
Republican resistance
and active
Millions upon
millions flooded
the sidewalks,
the roads. They
international
were crying,
diplomacy set world
cheering,
opinion against the
screaming
Dutch efforts to re-
"...Long live
establish their
Bung Karno..."
colony.[4] The second
They clung to
'police action' was a
the sides of the
diplomatic disaster for
car, the hood,
the Dutch cause. The
the running
newly appointed
United States
Secretary of State
Dean Acheson pushed
boards. They
grabbed at me
to kiss my
fingers.
the Netherlands
Soldiers beat a
government into
path for me to
negotiations earlier
recommended by the
United Nations but
until then defied by the
the topmost
step of the big
white palace.
There I raised
Netherlands. The
both hands
Dutch–Indonesian
high. A stillness
Round Table
swept over the
Conference was held
millions.
in The Hague from 23
August 1949 to 2
"Alhamdulillah –
Thank God," I
November 1949
cried. "We are
between the Republic,
free"
the Netherlands, and
the Dutch-created
federal states. The
Netherlands agreed to
— Sukarno's
recollections of
independence
achieved.[68]
recognise Indonesian
sovereignty over a
new federal state known as the 'United
States of Indonesia' (RUSI). It would
include all the territory of the former Dutch
East Indies with the exception of
Netherlands New Guinea; sovereignty over
which it was agreed would be retained by
the Netherlands until further negotiations
with Indonesia. The other issue on which
Indonesia gave concessions was
Netherlands East Indies debt. Indonesia
agreed to responsibility for this sum of
£4.3 billion, much of which was directly
attributable to Dutch attempts to crush the
revolution. Sovereignty was formally
transferred on 27 December 1949, and the
new state was immediately recognised by
the United States of America.
The United States of Indonesia, December 1949 – the
Republic of Indonesia is shown in red.
Republican-controlled Java and Sumatra
together formed a single state in the
sixteen-state RUSI federation, but
accounted for almost half its population.
The other fifteen 'federal' states had been
created by the Netherlands since 1945.
These states were dissolved into the
Republic over the first half of 1950. An
abortive anti-Republic coup in Bandung
and Jakarta by Westerling's Legion of Ratu
Adil (APRA) on 23 January 1950 resulted
in the dissolution of the populous
Pasundan state in West Java, thus
quickening the dissolution of the federal
structure. Colonial soldiers, who were
largely Ambonese, clashed with
Republican troops in Makassar during the
Makassar Uprising in April 1950. The
predominantly Christian Ambonese were
from one of the few regions with pro-Dutch
sentiments and they were suspicious of
the Javanese Muslim-dominated Republic,
whom they unfavourably regarded as
leftists. On 25 April 1950, an independent
Republic of South Maluku (RMS) was
proclaimed in Ambon but this was
suppressed by Republican troops during a
campaign from July to November. With the
state of East Sumatra now being the only
federal state remaining, it too folded and
fell in line with the unitary Republic. On 17
August 1950, the fifth anniversary of his
declaration of Indonesian independence,
Sukarno proclaimed the Republic of
Indonesia as a unitary state.[69][70][14]
Impacts
Indonesian Vice-president Hatta and Dutch Queen
Juliana at the signing ceremony which took place at
the Royal Palace of Amsterdam. With the treaty signed,
the Dutch officially recognised Indonesian sovereignty.
Although there is no accurate account of
how many Indonesians died, they died in
far greater numbers than the Europeans.
Estimates of Indonesian deaths in fighting
range from 45,000 to 100,000 and civilian
dead exceeded 25,000 and may have been
as high as 100,000.[71][72][73] A total of
1,200 British soldiers were killed or went
missing in Java and Sumatra in 1945 and
1946, most of them Indian soldiers.[6]
More than 5,000 Dutch soldiers lost their
lives in Indonesia between 1945 and 1949.
Many Japanese died; in Bandung alone,
1,057 died, only half of whom died in
actual combat, the rest killed in rampages
by Indonesians. Seven million people were
displaced on Java and Sumatra.[71][74]
Memorial to Dutch losses in the war at the Prinsenhof
in Delft
The revolution had direct effects on
economic conditions; shortages were
common, particularly food, clothing and
fuel. There were in effect two economies –
the Dutch and the Republican – both of
which had to simultaneously rebuild after
World War II and survive the disruptions of
the revolution. The Republic had to set up
all necessities of life, ranging from
'postage stamps, army badges, and train
tickets' whilst subject to Dutch trade
blockades. Confusion and ruinous
inflationary surges resulted from
competing currencies; Japanese, new
Dutch money, and Republican currencies
were all used, often concurrently.[75]
Indonesian independence was secured
through a blend of both diplomacy and
force. Despite their ill-discipline raising the
prospect of anarchy, without pemuda
confronting foreign and Indonesian
colonial forces, Republican diplomatic
efforts would have been futile. The
revolution is the turning point of modern
Indonesian history, and it has provided the
reference point and validation for the
country's major political trends that
continue to the present day. It gave
impetus to communism in the country, to
militant nationalism, to Sukarno's 'guided
democracy', to political Islam, the origins
of the Indonesian army and its role in
Indonesian power, the country's
constitutional arrangements, and the
centralism of power in Indonesia.[76]
The revolution destroyed a colonial
administration ruled from the other side of
the world, and dismantled with it the raja,
seen by many as obsolete and powerless.
Also, it relaxed the rigid racial and social
categorisations of colonial Indonesia.
Tremendous energies and aspirations
were created amongst Indonesians; a new
creative surge was seen in writing and art,
as was a great demand for education and
modernisation. It did not, however,
significantly improve the economic or
political fortune of the population's
poverty-stricken peasant majority; only a
few Indonesians were able to gain a larger
role in commerce, and hopes for
democracy were dashed within a
decade.[76]
See also
East Sumatra revolution
History of Indonesia
List of high-ranking commanders of the
Indonesian War of Independence
Timeline of the Indonesian National
Revolution
Notes
1. Ricklefs 1993, p. 217.
2. Reid 1974, p. 152.
3. Vickers 2005, p. 115.
4. Friend 2003, p. 38.
5. "The War for Independence: 1945 to
1950" . Gimonca. Retrieved 23 September
2015.
6. Kirby 1969, p. 258.
7. 1945-1950ubachsberg.nl.
8. https://www.groene.nl/artikel/wie-telt-deindonesische-doden
9. Friend 2003, p. 35.
10. Vandenbosch 1931, pp. 1051–106.
11. Kahin 1980, pp. 113-120.
12. Vickers 2005, p. 85.
13. Ricklefs 1991, p. 207.
14. Frederick & Worden 1993.
15. Ricklefs 1991, p. 213.
16. Taylor 2003, p. 325.
17. Reid 1974, p. 30.
18. Kahin 2000, pp. 1-4.
19. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 214-215.
20. Lockwood 1975.
21. Friend 2003, p. 32.
22. Crib 1996, pp. 72-85.
23. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 215-216.
24. Vickers 2005, p. 198.
25. Vickers 2005, p. 97.
26. Reid 1974, p. 49.
27. Fenton-Huie 1992.
28. Reid 1981, pp. 107–157.
29. Note: These legal testimonies formerly
designated top secret have been made
public and are available online. See: Van der
Molen, Pia Bussemaker, Herman Archief
van Tranen website (2012). Document:
125_A_B_C_D_E_F Online archive
30. Vickers 2005, p. 98.
31. Bussemaker 2005.
32. Former KNIL POWs were still
recuperating in Allied military bases outside
of Indonesia (e.g. Japan and the
Philippines). The British in fact prohibited
Dutch troops from entering the country
during most of the Bersiap period.
33. Ricklefs 1991, p. 214.
34. Friend 2003, p. 33.
35. Ricklefs 1991, p. 215.
36. Most PETA and Heiho members did not
yet know about the declaration of
independence.
37. Reid 1974, p. 78.
38. Bidien 1945, pp. 345–348.
39. Ricklefs 1991, p. 216.
40. Ashton & Hellema 2001, p. 181.
41. Vickers 2005, p. 99.
42. Tjandraningsih 2011, p. 3.
43. McMillan 2005, pp. 306-307.
44. Reid 1974, p. 54.
45. Ricklefs 1991, p. 217.
46. Parrot 1975, pp. 87-111.
47. Sukarno & Adams 1965, p. 228.
48. Frederick 1989, pp. 237–243.
49. Jessup 1989.
50. Friend 2003, p. 420.
51. Ricklefs 1991, p. 224.
52. Kahin 1952, p. 206.
53. van Mook 1949, p. 298.
54. Ricklefs 1991, p. 226.
55. Kahin 1952, p. 233.
56. Kahin 1952, p. 229.
57. Reid 1974, p. 149.
58. Reid 1974, p. 150.
59. Reid 1974, pp. 149-151.
60. KodamVI/Siliwangi 1968, cited in [2]
61. Reid 1974, p. 153.
62. Reid 1974, p. 161.
63. Friend 2003, p. 37.
64. Vickers 2005, pp. 101-104.
65. Colombijn & Linblad 2002, pp. 143–173.
66. Reid 1974, p. 60.
67. Ricklefs 1991, p. 230.
68. Sukarno & Adams 1965, pp. 262–263.
69. Reid 1974, pp. 170-172.
70. Ricklefs 1991, pp. 232-233.
71. Vickers 2005, p. 100.
72. Friend 1989, pp. 228 and 237.
73. Pendit 1979; Stoler 1975, p. 103;
Pramoedya Anwar Toer, Koesalah Soebagyo
Toer & Ediati Kamil 2005a; Pramoedya
Anwar Toer, Koesalah Soebagyo Toer &
Ediati Kamil 2005b; Pramoedya Anwar Toer,
Koesalah Soebagyo Toer & Ediati Kamil
2005c; Pramoedya Anwar Toer, Koesalah
Soebagyo Toer & Ediati Kamil 2014, all cited
in [71]
74. Documentary film Tabee Toean , 1995.
Director: Tom Verheul. Combination of
footage and stories of Dutch war veterans.
75. Vickers 2005, p. 101.
76. Reid 1974, pp. 170-171.
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(eds) (1993). "The National Revolution,
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GPO for the Library of Congress.
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Reid,, Anthony (1981). "Indonesia:
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Modern Indonesia. New York: Cambridge
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Further reading
Anderson, Ben (1972). Java in a Time of
Revolution: Occupation and Resistance,
1944–1946. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell
University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0687-0.
Cribb, Robert (1991). Gangster and
Revolutionaries: The Jakarta People's
Militia and the Indonesian Revolution
1945–1949. Sydney, Australia: ASSA
Southeast Asian Publications Series –
Allen and Unwin. ISBN 0-04-301296-5.
Drooglever, P. J.; Schouten, M. J. B.;
Lohanda, Mona (1999). Guide to the
Archives on Relations between the
Netherlands and Indonesia 1945–1963.
The Hague, Netherlands: ING Research
Guide.
George, Margaret (1980). Australia and
the Indonesian Revolution. Melbourne
University Press. ISBN 0-522-84209-7.
Heijboer, Pierre (1979). De Politionele
Acties (in Dutch). Haarlem: Fibula-van
Dishoeck.
Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt
"Operaties in de Oost: de Koninklijke
Marine in de Indische archipel (19451951)" (Amsterdam 2003).
Ide Anak Agug Gde Agung (1996)
(translated to English by Linda
Owens)From the Formation of the State
of East Indonesia Towards the
Establishment of the United States of
Indonesia Jakarta: Yayasan Obor
Indonesia ISBN 979-461-216-2 (Original
edition Dari Negara Indonesia Timur ke
Republic Indonesia Serikat 1985 Gadjah
Mada University Press)
Jong, Dr. L. de (1988). Het Koninkrijk der
Nederlanden in de Tweede Wereldoorlog,
deel 12, Sdu, 's-Gravenhage (an
authoritative standard text on both the
political and military aspects, in Dutch)
Kahin, Audrey (1995). Regional Dynamics
of the Indonesian Revolution. University
of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-0982-3.
Kahin, George McTurnan (1952) [1951].
"Nationalism and Revolution in
Indonesia". Ithaca, NY: Cornell University
Press. OCLC 406170 .
Kodam VI/Siliwang (1968). Siliwangi dari
masa kemasa (in Indonesian). Fakta
Mahjuma.
Lucas, A. (1991). One Soul One Struggle.
Region and Revolution in Indonesia. St.
Leonards, Australia: Allen & Unwin.
ISBN 0-04-442249-0.
McMillan, Richard. The British
Occupation of Indonesia 1945–1946.
New York, NY: Routledge. ISBN 0-41535551-6.
Payne, Robert (1947). The Revolt In Asia.
New York: John Day.
Poeze, Harry A. (2007). Verguisd en
vergeten. Tan Malaka, de linkse beweging
en de Indonesische Revolutie 1945–
1949. KITLV. p. 2200. ISBN 978-90-6718258-4.
Taylor, Alastair M. (1960). Indonesian
Independence and the United Nations.
London: Stevens & Sons.
ASIN B0007ECTIA .
Yong Mun Cheong (2004). The
Indonesian Revolution and the Singapore
Connection, 1945–1949. Leiden,
Netherlands: KITLV Press. ISBN 906718-206-0.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to
Indonesian Revolution.
Parallel and Divergent Aspects of British
Rule in the Raj, French Rule in Indochina,
Dutch Rule in the Netherlands East
Indies (Indonesia), and American Rule in
the Philippines .
Radio address by Queen Wilhelmina on
7 December 1942 .
Dutch Proposals for Indonesian
Settlement 6 November 1945 .
Dutch Proposals for Indonesian
Settlement 10 Feb 1946 .
Text of the Linggadjati Agreement 10
Feb 1946 .
The Renville Political Principles 17
January 1948 .
Dutch Queen Signs away an Empire
(1950) , newsreel on the British Pathé
YouTube Channel
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