DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA

DISKRIMINASI
PASAR TENAGA KERJA
! Perbedaan upah (earning) dan kesempatan
kerja
(employment
opportunities)
untuk
pekerjaan yang sama,
! Disebabkan : ras, gender, suku bangsa, dll.
TABEL 1
KONDISI PASAR TENAGA KERJA AMERIKA (1997)
WHITE
Pria
Wanita
BLACK
Pria
Wanita
HISPANIC
Pria
Wanita
Lulusan SMU
82,9
83,2
73,5
76,0
54,9
54,6
(%)
Lulus S1 (%)
27,0
22,3
12,5
13,9
10,6
10,1
TPAK (%)
77,5
59,9
72,2
64,0
84,1
57,0
Pengangguran
3,6
3,7
8,5
8,8
6,1
7,9
(%)
Upah Tahunan
$36.942 $21.208 $24.510 $18.785 $23.038 $16.459
(Part Time)
Upah Tahunan
$45.131 $29.817 $30.560 $25.026 $27.985 $23.193
(Full Time)
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Labor Market Discrimination - 1
Kondisi pasar tenaga kerja :
! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja pria
dan wanita " Gender
! Terjadi perbedaan upah antara pekerja kulit
putih, hitam dan hispanic " Ras
! Perbedaan juga ditimbulkan karena tingkat
pendidikan
Negara lain :
! CANADA
" Upah pria kulit hitam lebih
rendah 18 % daripada pria kulit putih.
! INGGRIS
" Imigran non kulit putih
menerima 10-20 % lebih rendah dari imigran
kulit putih dengan skill yang sama.
! HUNGARY
" ratio upah wanita-pria 0,65
! SWEDIA
" ratio upah wanita-pria 0,77
! AUSTRALIA " ratio upah wanita-pria 0,73
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Labor Market Discrimination - 2
THE DISCRIMINATION COEFFICIENT
# Dikemukakan Gary Becker dalam
The Economics of Discrimination (1957)
# Konsep dasar : perbedaan selera
# Type TK : White Workers dengan upah wW
dan Black Workers dengan upah wB
# Apabila tidak suka Black Workers maka
upah yang sebenarnya wB untuk 1 jam,
seolah-olah menjadi wB (1 + d)
# Nilai d positif, disebut Discrimination
Coefficient
# Contoh : upah Black Workers per jam
wB = $10 dengan d=0,5 ; menyebabkan
seolah-olah employer membayar $15 per
jam.
# Nepotism Coefficient " wB (1 – n )
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Labor Market Discrimination - 3
A. EMPLOYER DISCRIMINATION
# Asumsi :White Workers dan Black Workers,
keduanya Perfect Subtitutes in Production.
# Fungsi produksi :
q = f ( EW + E B )
q
EW
EB
" output firm
" jumlah white workers
" jumlah black workers
Analisis Firm Non Diskriminasi
# White Workers dan Black Workers
memiliki Value of Marginal Product (VMPE)
sama.
# Employer akan merekrut yang lebih murah
# Employer akan merekrut sampai upah TK
sama dengan Value of Marginal Product.
# Misal : wW > wB
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Labor Market Discrimination - 4
Gambar 1
Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers
pada Firm Non Diskriminasi
Dollars
wB
VMPE
Employment
EB*
Analisis Firm Diskriminasi
# Misal : Employer tidak suka black worker,
maka upah " wB (1 + d)
# Keputusan rekrutmen : perbandingan
antara wW dengan wB (1 + d) $
• Rekrut hanya BW " wB (1 + d) < wW
• Rekrut hanya WW " wB (1 + d) > wW
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Labor Market Discrimination - 5
# All-white workforce " White Firms
# All-black workforce " Black Firms
# Misal : wW < wB
Gambar 2
Keputusan Rekrutmen White Workers
pada White Firm (Diskriminasi)
Dollars
ww
VMP
E
*
EW
Employment
# Pada kondisi wW < wB ; semakin besar d
maka
semakin
banyak
merekrut
white
workers, dan sebaliknya.
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Labor Market Discrimination - 6
Gambar 3
Keputusan Rekrutmen Black Workers
pada Black Firm (Diskriminasi)
Dollars
wB (1 + d1 )
wB (1 + d0 )
wB
VMP
E
EB1
EB0
EB*
Employment
DISCRIMINATION and PROFITS
Kerugian white firm (Gb. 2) :
• Employer seharusnya dapat merekrut black
worker dalam jumlah yang sama dengan
upah lebih rendah " Kesalahan Jumlah
• Profit seharusnya dapat meningkat bila non
diskriminasi
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Labor Market Discrimination - 7
Kerugian Diskriminasi :
! Merekrut pekerja ‘’Wrong Color’’
! Merekrut “Wrong Number”
$ Menyebabkan tidak tercapainya ProfitMaximizing Level of Employment ( EB*)
Gambar 4
Profit dan Discrimination Coefficient
Dollars
πmax
πw
Black
Firm
0
White
Firm
dW
Discrimination
Coefficient
The Most Profitable Firm " Zero Discrimination
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Labor Market Discrimination - 8
LABOR MARKET EQUILIBRIUM
Firm dengan Discrimination Coefficient :
! Rendah
" cenderung Black Firm
! Tinggi
" cenderung White Firm
Gambar 5
Ratio Upah Black/White dalam Pasar Tenaga Kerja
Black-White
Wage Ratio
S
(wB / wW )
1
D'
R
(wB / w W )*
D
0
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N
Black
Employmoent
Labor Market Discrimination - 9
Kondisi :
! (wB / wW ) > 1 " Tidak ada employer merekrut
black workers.
! Asumsi : Supply Black Worker Perfectly
Inelastic " sejumlah N Black person tidak
terpengaruh tingkat upah.
B. EMPLOYEE DISCRIMINATION
! Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”
! Misal :
White worker yang bekerja pada
Black Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa
mendapat upah wW (1- d).
! Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of
Firms” karena white worker dan black worker
adalah
perfect
subtitutes
sehingga
firm
membayar jumlah upah yang sama.
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Labor Market Discrimination - 10
C. CUSTOMER DISCRIMINATION
! Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh
Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted
Price " p (1 + d).
! Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan
sesuai kondisi.
! Survey yang dilakukan di Atlanta, Boston,
Detroit dan Los Angeles :
HUBUNGAN ANTARA CUTOMER DISCRIMATION DENGAN
PERSENTASE BLACK WORKER BARU
TYPE FIRM
Customer &
worker
bertemu
Customer &
worker tidak
bertemu
Perbedaan
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> 50 %
BLACK
CUSTOMER
> 75 %
WHITE
CUSTOMER
PERBEDAAN
58,0 %
9,0 %
49,0 %
46,6 %
12,2 %
34,4 %
-
-
14,6 %
Labor Market Discrimination - 11
CUSTOMER DISCRIMINATION
and the NBA
Nearly three-quarters of the players in the National Basketball
Asociation (NBA) are black, and many of the highest-paid players are
also black. In the last few years, a number of black rookies have signed
eye-popping multiyear contract, such as Shaquille O’Neal’s $40 million
deal with the Orlando Magic, Chris Webber’s $74 million deal with the
Golden State Wariors, and Larry Johnson’s $84 million deal with the
Charlotte Hornets. There ara also more black coaches in the NBA than
any other sport.
Most fans of the NBA, however, are white. Because baskerball
players are very visible to the fans who attend the games, the team
owners cannot disguise the racial composition of the team by strategically
placing players in “far-off” positions. Moreover, there seems to be
scarcity of talented white players who could notoceably change the racial
composition of an NBA team. Customer discriminations by fans,
therefor, will increase the relative salaries of white players because
owners wishing to cater the the white fans will compete for the few white
players available.
It turns out that the racial composition of the basketball team has a
strong impact on game attendance. A study of attenance records
indicates that replacing a black player with an eqqually talented white
player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year. At $50 a head (a
very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the
racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000.
It is also the case that black players earn less than white players in the
NBA. The typical white player earns about 20 percent more than black
who play in the same position and have equal ability (as measured by the
ream statistics that sports fans are so fond of memorizing). The average
annual salary in the NBA is now over $ 2 milion, so the impact of
customer discrimination in the wages of basketball players may
substantial.
Sources : Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer, “Racial Differences in Professional
Basketball Players’s Compensation,” Journal of Labor Economics 6 (January
1998);40-61; Andrew E. Serwer, “How High,” Sport Illisutrated, November 8, 1993, pp.
88-91
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Labor Market Discrimination - 12
MEASURING DISCRIMINATION
Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari
___
# Male, dengan average wage WM
___
# Female, dengan average wage WF
Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :
___
___
___
∆ W = WM − W F
Pengembangan model :
Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan
Earning function :
# Male
: wM = α M + β M S M
# Female : wF = α F + β F S F
β M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila
mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.
Model Regresi :
___
___
___
∆ W = WM − WF = α M + β M s M − α F − β F s F
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Labor Market Discrimination - 13
Gambar 6
Measuring the Impact of Discrimination on the Wage
Dollars
Men's Earnings
Function
M
Skill
w
w*
F
Women's Earnings
Function
αM
-
wF
αF
0
•
s
F
s
M
Schooling
Male mendapat wage lebih tinggi meskipun samasama tidak bersekolah.
•
Male bersekolah lebih lama sehingga perbedaan
___
antara Male dan Female "
___
wM − wF
___
•
Diskriminasi akibat Skill "
wM − wF*
___
•
Diskriminasi akibat School "
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w − wF
*
F
Labor Market Discrimination - 14
TREND IN FEMALE-MALE WAGE RATIO (1930-1990)
0.72
0.69
0.66
0.63
0.60
0.57
0.54
1930
1940
1950
1970
1960
1980
1990
Year
WAGES AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF HISPANIC WORKERS (1997)
MEN
HISPANICS
Mexicans
Puerto Ricans
Cubans
Central or South American Origin
Other Hispanics
Non-Hispanics
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HOURLY
WAGE
($)
12,78
12,20
14,11
14,58
13,00
15,31
19,44
WOMEN
YEAR OF
SCHOOLING
HOURLY
WAGE
($)
YEAR OF
SCHOOLING
12,8
10,1
12,2
13,1
11,2
12,8
13,7
11,53
9,90
12,67
14,21
10,67
12,01
13,63
11,5
10,9
12,8
13,2
11,8
12,9
13,7
Labor Market Discrimination - 15