Tujuan dari makalah ini adalah untuk memberikan perspektif Islam

ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE EXISTENCE OF SOUL AND ITS
INFLUENCE IN HUMAN LEARNING
(A Philosophical Analysis of the Classical and Modern Learning Theories)
By: Tabrani. ZA1 and Masbur2
1
Faculty of Tarbiyah, Serambi Mekkah University Banda Aceh, Researcher at SCAD Independent.
E-mail: [email protected]
1
Faculty of Tarbiyah and Teacher Training, State Islamic University of Ar-Raniry, Banda Aceh
Abstract
Islam believes in the existence of soul and its influence in human learning. Islam believes
that human being consists of both body and soul, Islamic perspective on how a person learns
from insani experience also differs compared to contemporary Western psychological
perspective. This paper aims to provide a view Islam on the psychology of learning in terms
of the two sides of the Ilahiyyah (Islam) and Insaniyyah (Psychology). This discussion will
provide an overview of the concept of learning that Islam is divided into two sources:
directly from Allah (Ilahiyyah) and through human experience (insaniyyah). Source God can
be in the form of revelation, inspiration (inspiration), and a true dream (ru'ya sadiqah).
Human experience can be in the form of conditioning, observation, and cognition. Moreover,
this discussion would like to see contemporary learning theory from the Islamic perspectives.
The Islamic perspectives will include Qur’anic verses, Prophetic Hadiths, stories of the
Prophets and Companions, and the work of early Muslim scholars such as Ibn Sina and alGhazali using terms familiar to contemporary psychology.
Keywords: Education, Islam, Learning, Psychology, Qur`an
A. Introduction
Islam emphasizes on learning by observing a model. All these types of learning are considered
a higher-level and can never be explained without believing the existence of the soul, and can never be
obtained without the soul having a higher level of iman. Islam believes that the source of learning for
human being can be ilahi or insani.1 Ilahi source of learning means learning that occur directly from
Allah such as wahy (revelation), ilham (inspiration), and ru’ya sadiqah (true dream). Whereas insani
source of learning means learning that occur from human experience through conditioning, observations,
cognitions, and others. Contemporary psychology defines learning as the process by which experience
or practice results in a relatively permanent change in behavior or potential behavior.2 Regardless of the
sources of learning, Muslims believe that Allah is the ultimate reason of our learning or behavior
1
Muhammad Utsman Najati, Jiwa Manusia: Dalam Sorotan al-Qur’an, (Jakarta: CV. Cendekia
Sentra Muslim, 2001), p. 13-14
2
See in S.B. Klein, Learning: principles and applications, (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill, 2002), and J.T. Walker,
The psychology of learning, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996).
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changes. It is He who teaches us what we know not.3 And it is He who teaches us the Qur‟an and ability
to speak.4
Since contemporary Western psychology does not include soul as a subject matter of
studies, the ilahi source receives no attention in psychology of learning textbooks. And since
Islam believes that human being consists of both body and soul, Islamic perspective on how
a person learn from insani experience also differs compared to contemporary Western
psychological perspective. Many of the learning phenomena that cannot be explained by
contemporary theories of learning (such as drastic change of behavior of those who had
performed hajj or pilgrimage) can actually be explained if we believe on the existence of the
soul. In short, Islam believes in the existence of soul and its influence in human learning.
This is the single most important difference between Islamic concept of learning and
contemporary Western concept of learning.
B. Principles of Learning in Islamic Applications
Since the beginning of Islam has placed a high premium on education and has
enjoyed a long and rich intellectual tradition. Knowledge ('ilm) occupies a significant
position within Islam, as evidenced by the more than 800 references to it in Islam's most
revered book, the Qur`an. The importance of education is repeatedly emphasized in the
Qur`an with frequent injunctions, such as “God will exalt those of you who believe and those
who have knowledge to high degrees",5 "O my Lord! Increase me in knowledge”,6 and "As
God has taught him, so let him write".7 Such verses provide a forceful stimulus for the
Islamic community to strive for education and learning.
Islamic education is very unique, different from other types of educational
theory, because in Islam the concept is of Al-Qur`an. The Qur`an serves as a
comprehensive blueprint for both the individual and society and as the primary source of
knowledge. The advent of the Qur`an in the seventh century was quite revolutionary for the
predominantly illiterate Arabian society. Arab society had enjoyed a rich oral tradition, but
the Qur`an was considered the word of God and needed to be organically interacted with by
means of reading and reciting its words. Hence, reading and writing for the purpose of
3
QS. Al-Alaq, 5
4
QS. Ar-Rahman: 2 and 4
5
QS. Al-Mujadilah: 11
6
QS. Thaaha: 114
7
QS. Al-Baqarah: 282
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accessing the full blessings of the Qur`an was an aspiration for most Muslims. Thus,
education in Islam unequivocally derived its origins from a symbiotic relationship with
religious instruction.
The application part of learning will try to illustrate the change of behavior of the
Companions of Prophet Muhammad SAW who were able to change their behavior of heavy
drinking (alcoholism). This is to inspire modern Muslim psychologists to use the same
principles in changing the bad behavior of contemporary Muslims such as alcoholism, drug
abuse, smoking, etc. The application is inspired and adapted from the writing of Badri on
“Islam and Alcoholism”.8 The word alcohol used in this paper is referring to liquor, not the
various types of alcohol that is sometimes used as cleaners or perfumes.
1. Physiological Perspective:
It is understandable that most Arab at that time were alcoholic because their
forefathers had been alcoholics, and this had possibly provided genetic, neuronal, or
hormonal potentials for the Companions to become alcoholics as well.
But since the
inception of Islam, some of the Islamic practices may have change the physiological
potential to a more positive side. Practices such as wudu` (ablution), salat (prayer), dhikr
(utterance and remembrance of Allah), tilawah (reading the Qur‟an), and sawm (fasting)
may have provided positive potential to prepare for abstinence from alcohol. Besides that,
some worldly practices such as proper diet (semi-vegetarian), eating supplement (honey and
habbat al-sawda’ or black seeds), and exercises (preparing for Jihad) may also have
provided positive potentials to change behavior. Supported with tarbiyyah nafsiyyah (souls
education) in terms of `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq during Makkah period and part of
Madinah period, the potential to continue to become alcoholics had changed to potential to
abstain from alcohols.
2. Psychodynamic and Humanistic perspectives:
According to Badri, one of the reasons that alcohols become rampant in ancient Arab
society was the deep-rooted unconscious feelings of pride, insecurity, and romantic passion; which
would be of interest to modern psychodynamic theories.9 But the coming of Islam has instilled the
sense of pride for the true `aqidah, sense of security by Allah‟s power, and love and passion for
8
Malik B. Badri, The Dilemma of Muslim Psychologists, (London, United Kingdom: MWH London
Publishers, 1979), p. 34
9
Ibid., p. 36
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Allah. These psychodynamic variables, influenced by Islam, had provided the potential for the
Companions to change any bad behavior in future, which in our case, heavy drinking.
From humanistic perspectives, individual differences also influence whether the
Companions would be involved in alcoholism or not, before or after converting to Islam. For
example, Badri mentioned that Utsman ibn al-`Affan RA never touch the alcohol even
during pre-Islamic period despite having the physiological and psychodynamic potential to
do so. Even after converting to Islam, not all people have the sensitivity or get the hint that
alcohols are bad.10 Badri mentioned that `Umar ibn al-Khattab RA was already suspicious
when the first verse that talk about alcohol is revealed11 that subtly differentiate between
strong drink and good nourishment.12 Although the process of tahrim khamr (prohibition of
alcohols) took a lengthy period and involve a few stages, individual differences showed that
some of the Companions had already been abstaining 100% from alcohols from the very first
stage, while other Companions postponed until the final stage of prohibition. But it is the
iman in the souls of Companions that ultimately enable them to show mass abstinence of
alcohol during the final stage.
3. Social Learning Perspective
It is understandable if observational learning contributed to alcoholism among the
Arabs. The children and teenagers may have been following their fathers‟ habit. The adults,
on the other hands, may have been following the habits of some significant or influential
others. In fact, heavy drinking had become an Arab culture, models are everywhere for any
new potential non-alcoholic to become one. But when the Prophet SAW migrated (hijrah) to
Medina, he had first and foremost created brotherhood (ukhuwwah) tied with the divine
`aqidah so they become united and cohesive. This unity and cohesiveness had facilitated the
compliance of the Companions to follow other fellow Companions who had been abstaining
from alcohols. And of course, the Prophet SAW and a few Companions who had never touch
alcohols and the Companions who had abstained from alcohol in the early stage of
prohibition had provided a model that increase the number of followers or at least provide
potential for future abstinence. And this social learning is based on iman, the belief that the
Prophet SAW is the true guidance and the pleasure of following their brothers whom they
love for the sake of Allah.
10
Ibid., p. 40
11
QS. An-Nahl: 67
12
Malik B. Badri, The Dilemma…, p. 41
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4. Behaviorism
The stages of prohibition of alcoholic had some striking similarities with modern behavior
therapy called systematic desensitization but in a larger scale. The stages involved four stages:13 (1)
subtly making no association between strong drink and good nourishment,14 (2) directly but
cautiously associating alcohols with greater sin compared to their usefulness without prohibiting it,15
(3) restricting alcoholic drinking by not associating it with the most important divine practice i.e. salat
(prayer) forcing them to abstain from alcohol at five different times in a day,16 and (4) direct
prohibition and associating alcohols with filthy things and devils.17 These associations are what
modern psychology refers to as classical conditioning. The very concepts of rewards and sins that
were well-known even during Makkah period may also have influenced the behavioral change in a
gradual manner which has striking similarity with shaping technique introduced by operant
conditioning theory. At each of this prohibition stage, and while Prophet Muhammad SAW education
on `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq continues, some of the Companions may have totally abstain from
alcohols, some of them may have reduced themselves to social drinking only, some of them may have
felt guilt, and some of them just getting ready for the next stage to stop drinking. In other words, an
effective combination of classical and operant conditioning principles may have contributed to mass
abstinence of alcohols. In addition to cognitive factors that Ibn Sina and al-Ghazali had mentioned
earlier, the soul factors also play an important role in all the behavioral changes.
5. Cognitive-spiritual Perspective
`Umar al-Khattab RA is one of those Companions who were gifted with inspirations
as mentioned before. It is this `Umar who had been very suspicious about the evil nature of
alcohol even during the first subtle stage of alcohols prohibitions. And it is this very `Umar
who, after the third stage, met Prophet Muhammad SAW to ask Allah to give a clear
statement about the status of alcohols in Islam. And as mentioned by Badri, some of the
Companions already knew that alcohol is bad and somewhat just waiting for the time of clear
13
Ibid., p. 43
14
QS. An-Nahl: 67
15
QS. Al-Baqarah: 219
16
QS. An-Nisaa: 43
17
QS. Al-Maaidah: 90-91
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prohibition before they stopped drinking.18 This can be explained by another type of modern
cognitive theory of learning called latent learning.19
6. Religious Perspective
This perspective postulates, in general sense, a Muslim should enjoin the wajib
(obligatory), mandub (desirable) and halal (permissible) behaviors and avoid the haram (forbidden)
and makruh (undesirable) behaviors. When the Qur‟an stated clearly that alcohol is haram,20 a mass
behavioral change took place. Badri described the situation by reporting that Muslims in Medina
“threw away the remaining drinks in their cups and broke the large baked clay plots in which other
drinks were being fermented”.21 Some of them, after hearing the call „Surely alcohol has been
forbidden‟ broke and emptied the “large clay pots and skins full of fermented date-palm, honey, and
grape till the streets of Medina ran with little rivers of al-khamr (alcohol) as a testimony to the
greatest anti-alcoholism movement that humanity has ever witnessed”.22 Naturally, as Muslims the
shari`ah rulings such as haram should be powerful enough as a variable to change their behaviors.
Actually, as we can see from contemporary Muslims‟ a behavior, this variable is moderated by the
souls and their level of iman.
According to Badri, the real reason for the success this behavioral change started
many years before the prohibition of alcohols, specifically since the inception of Islam. 23
During the early stage of Islam during Makkah period, instead of attacking alcoholism, Islam
first attacked the false `aqidah (belief), ignorance, and values that are based on that belief. It
is this ignorance that had become the roots of all evil behavior. That is why the first thirteen
year after prophet hood was spent focusing on establishing the new belief emphasizing faith
to the oneness of Allah, the unseen angels, the hereafter (including paradise and hellfire), the
revealed books, and various prophets. Changing the souls of the Companions had changed
them as persons in terms of mental processes (`aqidah) and behavior (`ibadah and akhlaq).
The classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning that came years
later were only symptomatic treatment that witnessed this unbelievably mass-scale of
behavioral changes made easier by the change of the souls years before. Treating symptoms
18
Malik B. Badri, Are contributions of early Muslim scholars relevant to modern psychotherapists?
Paper presented at the International Seminar on Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Islamic Perspective, at Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 1997.
19
See in S.B. Klein, Learning: principles and applications, (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill, 2002), and J.T.
Walker, The psychology of learning, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996).
20
QS. Al-Maaidah: 90-91
21
Malik B. Badri, The AIDS crisis: a natural product of modernity’s sexual revoluation, (Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia: Medeena Books, 2000), p. 3
22
Ibid., p. 4
23
Ibid., p. 5-10
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of observable behavior only without looking at the deep-rooted cause would not have caused
a massive behavioral change.
The above application shows the importance of educating current young Muslims, new
Muslims, or Muslims who have just realized the importance of going back to his/her root in Islam
in terms of correct interpretation of `aqidah, `ibadah, and akhlaq first, so that all behavioral
intervention programmer either in the form behavior therapy, behavior modification, or even
modeling will be more effective and successful.
C. Islamic Perspective on the Contemporary Learning Theory
1. The Theory of Classical Conditioning an Islamic Perspective
It should be noted that even in psychology syllabus at A level, students are aware of
scientific criticisms towards classical conditioning.24 This scientific evaluation of Western
theories of psychology should be highlighted by teachers in order to prevent students from
blindly accepting whatever theories originated from the West. Classical conditioning involves
giving a (conditioned) response to a neutral stimulus (which has become a conditioned stimulus)
that has been associated with another unconditioned stimulus.25 Classical conditioning cannot
explain all types of learned behavior. Sometimes a response may not be elicited as a result of
association between two stimuli as postulated by classical conditioning principles but more as a
result of neural communication that occurs in the brain.26 This neural activities can be triggered
by variables such as memory, emotion, and motives; variables which are considered unscientific
in Pavlovian and Watsonian classical conditioning. By adding the element of the soul, it is
possible to explore the possibility that iman-based activities such as dhikr (utterance and
remembrance of Allah‟s name) will influence the memory, emotion, motives, or even the
excitation or inhibition of neural activities.
In general, according to the Islamic perspective, classical conditioning which is
the backbone of early behaviorism can be an atheistic madhhab in terms of `aqidah. Badri
(2000) quoted J. B. Watson (the father of classical conditioning) to show how Watson dislike
treating human as animal “with something else in addition” because this something else is a
trouble to science. Included in this “something else,” according to Watson, are religion (din),
hereafter (akhirah), moral (akhlaq), and love which are major `aqidah issues in Islam!
24
M. W. Eysenck & C. Flanagan, Psychology for A2 level. East Sussex, England: Psychology
Press Ltd., 2001, p. 50
25
See in J.A. Omrod, Human learning (3rd ed.), (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999), and J.T.
Walker, The psychology of learning, (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1996).
26
S.B. Klein, Learning: principles and applications, (Boston, MA: McGraw Hill, 2002), p. 175
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Believing totally in the philosophy of classical conditioning is like converting to another
religion with Pavlov and Watson as prophets! Students should be made aware of this
underlying assumption about human nature that is against Islamic `aqidah and shari`ah.
Based on the argument above, readers may assume that we should abandon talking about
classical conditioning altogether when teaching psychology of learning. However, that may not
be a good strategy for at least two reasons. First, if we do not teach our students about classical
conditioning and the works of Pavlov and Watson, they will read it somewhere else and be
influenced by it.27 It is the teachers‟ job to explain the atheistic aspects of classical conditioning
and make the students immune to them. Second, the atheistic aspects only involve the
philosophical aspect of classical conditioning, not the principles or the applications. Not all
principles of classical conditioning are unIslamic.28 In fact, some of the principles have been
introduced long ago by our early Muslim scholars such as Ibn Sina and Al-Ghazali. The
difference is our early Muslim scholars do not subscribe to the mechanistic principles of current
classical conditioning principles.29
Ibn Sina and al-Ghazali both believe in the importance of association between
stimuli to elicit a conditioned response. The main difference between their ideas and
contemporary classical conditioning is, they include the cognitive aspects (e.g. memory and
imagination) that moderate the stimulus-response relationship which is absent in
contemporary “mechanical” classical conditioning perspective. Ibn Sina believes that the
association between unconditioned and neutral stimulus must be kept in memory before it
can become a conditioned stimulus.30 He gave examples of how seeing food (without even
eating it) is pleasurable and seeing sticks (without even been beaten by it) is painful. Ibn Sina
also suggested that a person can feel disgusted (a conditioned response) with yellow honey
(a conditioned stimulus) if he associates its colors with yellow bile (neutral stimulus).
Al-Ghazali went a step further by giving example of what is now known as Pavlovian
“stimulus generalization” when he observed that a person who was bitten by a snake is
27
Malik B. Badri, The dilemma…, p. 64
28
Tabrani. ZA, Islamic Studies dalam Pendekatan Multidisipliner, (Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 2(2),
2014), p. 211-234.
29
Ibid.
30
See in Malik B. Badri, Are contributions of early Muslim scholars relevant to modern
psychotherapists? Paper presented at the International Seminar on Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Islamic
Perspective, at Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 1997; Muhammad Utsman Najati, Al-dirasat al-nafsaniyyah `inda al`ulama’ al-Muslimin, (Beirut: Dar al-Shuruq, 1993); Z. B. Taha, `Ilm al-nafs fi al-turath al-`arabiyy al-Islamiyy,
(Khartoum, Sudan: Matba`ah Jami`ah al-Khartum, 1995); Tabrani. ZA, Isu-isu kritis dalam Pendidikan Islam
Perspektif Pedagogik Kritis. (Islam Futura, 13(2), 2014); and Tabrani. ZA, Islamic Studies dalam Pendekatan
Multidisipliner. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 2(2), 2014).
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momentarily phobic of a colorful rope. He also went another step further, much earlier than
Pavlov, by using salivation as his example. Al-Ghazali said that observing a person eating an
acidic fruit, or even imagining such scene, can make the observer (or the imaginer) salivates. Not
only it is an advanced theory at that time, it is also add to the current deficient theory by
introducing the cognitive aspect of learning such as imagination. All these examples above are
mentioned in much more details by Badri (1997), Najati (1993), Tabrani. ZA (2015) and Taha
(1995).
Finally, although the philosophical aspects of classical conditioning can be
dangerous to our iman (faith), its principles can be accepted with some modifications, which
include physiological and cognitive factors.
In addition to that, we believe that the
susceptibility of a person to be conditioned to a certain stimulus also depends on the soul‟s
level of iman in such a way that he or she will never give a response that is unIslamic in
terms of `aqidah, shari`ah, or akhlaq.
2. The Theory of Operant Conditioning an Islamic Perspective
Similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning philosophy is also atheistic
from an Islamic perspective. Operant conditioning, which is the backbone of later
behaviorism, is introduced by Skinner. Skinner, as quoted by Badri, said that behavior we
called right or wrong (which Muslims believe as halal and haram) are nothing more than
contingencies of responses towards immediate and tangible rewards and punishments, and
have nothing to do with the concepts of good and bad. In other words, our akhlaq, our
`ibadah, and even our tawhid are just illusions!31
According to operant conditioning, a response followed by a reinforcer (favorable
stimulus) is strengthened and is therefore, more likely to occur.32 The opposite effect can be
said when a response is followed by a punisher (aversive stimulus). Similar to classical
conditioning, operant conditioning too has been scientifically criticized as early as in an Alevel psychology textbook.33 Operant conditioning is not sufficient to explain most of human
behaviors. Some, like Klein contended that the power of reinforcement is not absolute in
explaining all behaviors.34 Some criminals who were punished repeatedly for their crimes
continued involving in their crime actions. In some instances, the criminal actions increase in
31
Malik B. Badri, The dilemma…, p. 72
32
J.A. Omrod, Human learning (3rd ed.), (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999), p. 128
33
M. W. Eysenck & C. Flanagan, Psychology for…, p. 52
34
S.B. Klein, Learning: principles and…, p. 178
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frequency as well as severity!35 Variables such as self-awareness and empathy have been
suggested to correlate with regulation of anger.
Perhaps that is why rehabilitation
intervention programmers in the prison have taken into account psychological growth with
the aim to decrease the probability of repeated offending.36 However, the idea of
psychological growth as an independent variable should take into account the moderating
influence of soul. A strong soul may decrease the likelihood that behavior is repeated after a
punishment is given.
The concept of learning or training through conditioning itself is not alien in Islam.
Al-Qur‟an mentions how ancient Arabs conditioned dogs and falcons in order to train the
animals to hunt for them.37 Prophet Muhammad SAW also had mentioned how a person‟s
response is influenced by its consequences by saying that “A Mu’min will never fall in the
same hole twice”.38 Badri reported that Al-Ghazali believes that ethical and emotional habits
can be learned and trained.39 On a broader perspective, the concept of jannah (paradise) and
nar (hell-fire) is based on rewards and punishment principle. This is because, it is in human
nature to try to seek pleasant feelings and avoid unpleasant stimuli. To a very pious Muslim,
even receiving Allah‟s pleasure is rewarding enough and receiving Allah‟s displeasure is
punishing enough. The major differences between operant conditioning and Islamic concepts
of rewards and punishment are, in Islam, the stimuli are intangible and delayed (as late as
after death or even after Judgment Day!). Not only cognitive factor plays a role here, but also
the soul factor, i.e. the level of iman, can influence whether Islamic stimuli are rewarding or
punishing enough.
Contemporary Western psychology advocates that punishment is less effective than
reinforcement.40 This concept is not alien in Islam based on a Hadith Qudsi: “When Allah decreed the
Creation He pledged Himself by writing in His book which is laid down with Him: My mercy
prevails over my wrath”. That is also why a Muslim will receive 10 rewards for doing 1 good deed
but only 1 sin for doing one bad deed. Even better than that, a Muslim who have the niyyah (intention)
to do good deed will receive rewards whereas a Muslim who have intention to do bad deed will not
35
B.B. Benda, Theoretical Model with Reciprocal Effects of Youthful Crime and Drug Use. Journal of
Social Service Research, 25(1-2), 1999, p. 77-108.
36
M.L. Bourke & V.B. Van Hasselt, Social problem-solving skills training for incarcerated offenders: a
treatment manual. Behavior Modification, 25(2), 2001, p. 163-188.
37
QS. Al-Maaidah: 4.
38
Narrated by Al-Shaykhan, Abu Dawud, and al-Shaybani
39
Malik B. Badri, Are contributions of early Muslim scholars relevant to modern psychotherapists?
Paper presented at the International Seminar on Counseling and Psychotherapy: An Islamic Perspective, at Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 1997.
40
J.A. Omrod, Human learning (3rd ed.), (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1999), p. 128
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receive sin before he or she actually do it. There is also a da`wah principle that al-targhib (making
people feel good) should be prioritized before al-tarhib (making people feel fear) when promoting
Islam which is in line with psychological concept to prioritize reinforcement over punishment.41 Even
when punishments are practiced in Islamic tradition, they are usually administered to those who really
understand his or her wrongdoings. For example beating the children who do not perform prayer is
only allowed when they are ten years old, only after educating them about the importance of prayer
three years before that.42
In other words, understanding the reason of punishment is a pre-requisite before
administering it which is similar to what Western psychology has said. The story of Ka`ab bin
Malik who refused to be exempted from punishment (social isolation) for being absent during the
War of Tabuk also shows his understanding of his wrongdoing. A careful reading of hadith
literature and the biography of the prophet will show that new Muslims, simple-minded Bedouin,
and Munafiqin (hypocrites) were rarely punished. Muslims whose souls have higher level of iman
usually voluntarily asked for worldly punishment in order to avoid the punishment in the hereafter.
Famous examples can be seen in the only two punishments of hudud zina (penalty
for adultery) ever conducted during the Prophet era where both of them gave self-confession
and voluntarily asked to be punished (the case of Ma`iz ibn Malik and the lady of alGhamidiyyah). Based on the above-mentioned examples, perhaps it can be assumed that, the
reason punishment really work in those cases because, ironically, the punishment is
indirectly rewarding! All the examples of operant conditioning so far show that soul can play
the moderating factor in influencing the stimulus-response relationship.
It is clear that contemporary operant conditioning theory of reinforcement cannot be
applied to Muslims with high level of iman. For a Muslim, just by having faith that he or she
will receive rewards, jannah (paradise), or Allah pleasure can be a positive reinforced.
Similarly, just by having faith that he or she will receive sins, nar (hellfire), or Allah‟s
displeasure can be a punishment to a Muslim. In addition to that, a Muslim who has faith
that Allah will always accept tawbah (repentance) for His servant (if he or she asks for it
seriously and sincerely) it can act as a negative reinforcer (alleviating the feel of guilt that
can lead to anxiety and depression) for Allah is Most Merciful and Most Compassionate.
The concept of rewards and sins in Islam can be explained from the perspective of
schedules of reinforcement (continuous and partial). Although the concepts of rewards and sins
in Islam are based on continuous schedule (awarded each time after we perform good or bad
41
Abdul Aziz, Fiqh dakwah, (Solo: Intermedia, 1997), p. 69
42
Based on a hadith narrated by Ahmad
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deed), there is an element of variability in terms of interval and ratio because the rewards and sins
are unobservable. Therefore, they can become powerful motivators for Muslims who have iman
in practicing ma`ruf (good) and avoiding munkar (evil). It is appropriate, however, to administer
observable rewards to non-believers who are kind to Islam or new Muslims. This is the
underlying reason for giving zakat money to mu’allafah qulubuhum. This is also the reason why
Prophet Muhammd SAW gave the war booty to the Tulaqa’ (new Muslims from Makkah) after
the War of Hunayn instead of giving it the highly committed Ansar Muslims from Madinah.
Although, initially the Ansar were not satisfied, eventually, iman prevailed over the needs for
worldly rewards. Since the soul (with its various level of iman) can influence the relationship
between reinforcement and response, observable rewards can be used to motivate, not only nonMuslims and new Muslims, but also Muslims with weak iman or even children whose iman is
not yet fully developed. For Muslims who want to maintain his souls in the state of iman, reading
al-Qur‟an regularly and understanding its meaning is suggested to receive regular “spiritual” and
“cognitive” rewards and/or punishments by reading Allah‟s personal praises and warning
directed to each individual reader.
On a more specific perspective on the concept of reinforcement schedules, Prophet
Muhammad (SAW), with inspirations from Allah, had been using variable partial or
intermittent reinforcement schedule to motivate consistent rate of response from Muslims.
The two examples concern the time of al-istijabah when Allah will grant whatever His
servants wish for during an unspecified time at night (based on a hadith narrated by Muslim)
and during an unspecified time on Friday.43
D. Conclusion
Reviews on various theories mentioned above shows that every theory has some truth
and is supported by Islam but has its own limitation in giving a full picture of human learning.
Psychology should take into consideration all these theories and incorporate Islamic perspectives
of learning in order to give an alternative, more comprehensive look of human learning. Since
contemporary Western psychology does not include soul as a subject matter of studies, the ilahi
source receives no attention in psychology of learning textbooks. And since Islam believes that
human being consists of both body and soul, Islamic perspective on how a person learn from
insani experience also differs compared to contemporary Western psychological perspective.
Many of the learning phenomena that cannot be explained by contemporary theories of learning
(such as drastic change of behavior of those who had performed hajj or pilgrimage) can actually
43
Based on a hadith narrated by al-Shaykhan, Malik, and Nasa‟i.
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be explained if we believe on the existence of the soul. In short, Islam believes in the existence of
soul and its influence in human learning. This is the single most important difference between
Islamic concept of learning and contemporary Western concept of learning.
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