Motivation

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Chapter 7: Motivation Concepts
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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
 Describe the three key elements of motivation.
 Evaluate the applicability of early theories of motivation.
 Apply the predictions of self-determination theory to intrinsic and
extrinsic rewards.
 Identify the implications of employee job engagement for
management.
 Describe goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, and reinforcement
theory.
 Demonstrate how organizational justice is a refinement of equity
theory.
 Apply the key tenets of expectancy theory to motivating employees.
 Compare contemporary theories of motivation.
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LO 1
Describe the Three
Key Elements of Motivation
Motivation is the processes that account for an
individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of
effort toward attaining a goal.
The level of motivation varies both between
individuals and within individuals at different times.
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LO 1
Describe the Three
Key Elements of Motivation
The three key elements of motivation are:
1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries.
2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the
organization.
3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can
maintain his/her effort.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s need theory has received wide
recognition, particularly among practicing
managers.
 Research does not generally validate the theory.
Some researchers have attempted to revive
components of the need hierarchy concept, using
principles from evolutionary psychology.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
Theory X and Theory Y
 Theory X assumptions are basically negative.
Employees inherently dislike work and must be
coerced into performing.
 Theory Y assumptions are basically positive.
Employees can view work as being as natural as
rest or play.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
The implications for managers can be explained by
using Maslow’s framework
 Theory X: lower-order needs dominate individuals.
 Theory Y: higher-order needs dominate individuals.
 McGregor himself believed that Theory Y
assumptions were more valid than Theory X.
There is no evidence to suggest that either set of
assumptions is valid.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory:
 Limited because it relies on self-reports.
 Reliability of methodology is questioned.
 No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.
 Herzberg assumed a relationship between
satisfaction and productivity, but the research
methodology he used looked only at satisfaction,
not at productivity.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
 McClelland’s Theory of Needs
 The theory focuses on three needs:
1. Need for achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to
achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive
to succeed.
2. Need for power (nPow): need to make others
behave in a way that they would not have
behaved otherwise.
3. Need for affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly
and close interpersonal relationships.
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LO 2
Evaluate the Applicability of
Early Theories of Motivation
McClelland’s theory has had the best support.
 It has less practical effect than the others.
 Because McClelland argued that the three needs
are subconscious—we may rank high on them but
not know it—measuring them is not easy.
 The process is time consuming and expensive, and
few organizations have been willing to invest in
measuring McClelland’s concept.
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LO 3
Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination
Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
Self-Determination Theory
 Proposes that people prefer to feel they have
control over their actions.
 Research on self-determination theory has focused
on cognitive evaluation theory.
People paid for work feel less like they want to do
it and more like they have to it.
 Proposes that in addition to being driven by a need
for autonomy, people seek ways to achieve
competence and positive connections to others.
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LO 3
Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination
Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
When extrinsic rewards are used as payoffs for
performance, employees feel they are doing a good
job.
 Eliminating extrinsic rewards can also shift an
individual’s perception of why he or she works on
a task from an external to an internal explanation.
Self-determination theory acknowledges that
extrinsic rewards can improve even intrinsic
motivation under specific circumstances.
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LO 3
Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination
Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
What does self-determination theory suggest for
providing rewards?
 A senior sales representative may be motivated by
a commission.
 A computer programmer who values writing code
because she likes to solve problems might react
negatively to an external standard like having to
write a certain number of lines of code every day.
Self-concordance: considers how strongly people’s
reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their
interests and core values.
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LO 3
Apply the Predictions of Self-Determination
Theory to Intrinsic and Extrinsic Rewards
What does all of this mean?
 For individuals:
Choose your job for reasons other than extrinsic
rewards.
 For organizations:
Provide intrinsic as well as extrinsic incentives.
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LO 4
Identify the Implications of Employee
Job Engagement for Management
Job engagement is the investment of an employee’s
physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job
performance.
 Many studies attempt to measure this deeper level of
commitment.
 Gallup organization: more engaged employees in
successful organizations than in average organizations.
 Academic studies: job engagement is positively
associated with performance and citizenship behaviors.
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LO 4
Identify the Implications of Employee
Job Engagement for Management
What makes people more engaged in their job?
 The degree to which an employee believes it is
meaningful to engage in work.
 A match between the individual’s values and the
organization’s.
 Leadership behaviors that inspire workers to a
greater sense of mission.
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LO 4
Identify the Implications of Employee
Job Engagement for Management
Are highly engaged employees getting “too much of a
good thing?”
 Construct is partially redundant with job attitudes.
 It may have a “dark side.”
Positive relationships between engagement and
work-family conflict.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Goal-Setting Theory
 Goals tell an employee what needs to be done and
how much effort is needed.
Evidence suggests:
 Specific goals increase performance.
 Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher
performance than do easy goals.
 Feedback leads to higher performance than does
non-feedback.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Three other factors influencing the goalsperformance relationship:
1. Goal commitment
2. Task characteristics
3. National culture
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
People differ in the way they regulate their thoughts
and behaviors.
 Those with a promotion focus strive for
advancement and accomplishment and approach
conditions that move them closer toward desired
goals.
 Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties
and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them
away from desired goals.
It’s probably best to be both promotion and
prevention oriented.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Self-efficacy theory is an individual’s belief that he
or she is capable of performing a task.
 Enactive mastery
 Vicarious modeling
 Verbal persuasion
 Arousal
Also known as social cognitive theory and social
learning theory.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Implications of self-efficacy theory:
 Training programs often make use of enactive
mastery by having people practice and build their
skills.
 Intelligence and personality are absent from
Bandura’s list, but they can increase self-efficacy.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Reinforcement theory: behavior is a function of its
consequences.
 Takes a behavioristic view, arguing that reinforcement
conditions behavior.
 Behavior is environmentally caused.
Goal-setting is a cognitive approach: an individual’s
purposes direct his or her action.
Operant conditioning theory: people learn to behave to
get something they want or to avoid something they
don’t want.
 B.F. Skinner’s behaviorism
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
In its pure form, reinforcement theory ignores
feelings, attitudes, expectations, and other cognitive
variables known to affect behavior.
Some researchers look at the same experiments
reinforcement theorists use to support their position
and interpret the findings in a cognitive framework.
Reinforcement is undoubtedly an important
influence on behavior, but few scholars are prepared
to argue it is the only one.
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Describe Goal-Setting Theory,
Self-Efficacy Theory & Reinforcement Theory
LO 5
Social-learning theory: we can learn through both
observation and direct experience.
 Models are central, and four processes determine
their influence on an individual:
1. Attentional processes
2. Retention processes
3. Motor reproduction processes
4. Reinforcement processes
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Demonstrate How Organizational
Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory
LO 6
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Demonstrate How Organizational
Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory
LO 6
When employees perceive an inequity, they can be
predicted to make one of six choices:
1. Change their inputs.
2. Change their outcomes.
3. Distort perceptions of self.
4. Distort perceptions of others.
5. Choose a different referent.
6. Leave the field.
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Demonstrate How Organizational
Justice is a Refinement of Equity Theory
LO 6
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LO 7
Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy
Theory to Motivating Employees
Expectancy theory argues that a tendency to act in a
certain way depends on an expectation that the act
will be followed by a given outcome and on the
attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
An employee will be motivated to exert a high level
of effort when he or she believes that:
 Effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
 A good appraisal will lead to rewards.
 The rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals.
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LO 7
Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy
Theory to Motivating Employees
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LO 7
Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy
Theory to Motivating Employees
Expectancy theory helps explain why a lot of
workers aren’t motivated on their jobs and do only
the minimum necessary to get by.
Three questions employees need to answer in the
affirmative if their motivation is to be maximized:
1. If I give maximum effort, will it be recognized in
my performance appraisal?
2. If I get a good performance appraisal, will it lead
to organizational rewards?
3. If I’m rewarded, are the rewards attractive to
me?
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LO 7
Apply the Key Tenets of Expectancy
Theory to Motivating Employees
Does expectancy theory work?
 It tends to be more valid in situations where
effort-performance and performance-reward
linkages are clearly perceived by the individual.
 If individuals were actually rewarded for
performance rather than seniority, effort, skill
level, and job difficulty, it might be much more
valid.
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LO 8
Compare Contemporary
Theories of Motivation
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Implications for Managers
Make sure extrinsic rewards for employees are
not viewed as coercive, but instead provide
information about competence and relatedness.
Consider goal-setting theory, as clear and difficult
goals often lead to higher levels of employee
productivity.
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Implications for Managers
Consider reinforcement theory regarding quality
and quantity of work, persistence of effort,
absenteeism, tardiness, and accident rates.
Consult equity theory to help understand
productivity, satisfaction, absence, and turnover
variables.
Expectancy theory also offers a powerful
explanation of performance variables such as
employee productivity, absenteeism, and turnover.
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