CVE 471 WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING RESERVOIRS Assist. Prof. Dr. Bertuğ Akıntuğ Civil Engineering Program Middle East Technical University Northern Cyprus Campus CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 1/39 2. RESERVOIRS Overview Introduction Characteristics of Reservoirs Determination of Reservoir Capacity Mass Curve Analysis Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity Sequent Peak Analysis Operation Study Other Approaches in Capacity Determination Reservoir Sedimentation CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 2/39 2. RESERVOIRS Introduction Reservoirs are structures that store water. In general, we observe high flow in winter and low flow in summer, and very high values in spring months or snowmelt seasons in Northern Hemisphere. On the other hand, the water demand is high in summer and low in winter. Therefore, the regulation of the streamflow is required to meet the demands. This regulation is possible by constructing reservoirs in the stream. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 3/39 2. RESERVOIRS Introduction (continued) • When the total supply of water (ΣS) is sufficient to meet the total demand (ΣD) during a specified period of time, the water storage is required when S<D. Required Storage S, D S S<D S>D S>D Variation of Supply and Demand CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering Storage reservoir D1 Storage reservoir or Diversion weir D2 t 4/39 2. RESERVOIRS Introduction (continued) There are number of purposes of constructing reservoirs Irrigation, Sediment accumulation, Transportation, Electricity generation, Water supply (municipal and industrial) Flood control, and Recreational. They are also used to supply emergency water like fire fighting or stabilize pressures in the network. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 5/39 2. RESERVOIRS Introduction (continued) Reservoirs can be divided into two main categories according to their storage capacities: Storage (conservation) reservoirs Distribution (service) reservoirs Formation of a big reservoir behind a dam may have various environmental aspects. For example: For the construction of Keban Dam in Turkey, ≈30,000 people were dislodged, and 300 km road, 48 km railway, and A large area were expropriated. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 6/39 2. RESERVOIRS Overview Introduction Characteristics of Reservoirs Determination of Reservoir Capacity Mass Curve Analysis Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity Sequent Peak Analysis Operation Study Other Approaches in Capacity Determination Reservoir Sedimentation CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 7/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs Potential for a Hydropower Reservoir CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 8/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 9/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 10/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) The capacity of the reservoir is very important since the main function of the reservoir is the storage of the water. The desired yield, which is the amount of water delivered from a reservoir to meet downstream requirements, must be available most of the time. For an ideal reservoir site: Sufficient impervious and sound formation (bed and side) Deep and narrow valley (less evaporation, low cost of expropriation) CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 11/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) After the determination of location of a reservoir, a special topographic map (1:5000 scaled) of the reservoir area is obtained with suitable contour intervals and Elevation - Area Curve, and Elevation – Storage Curve are obtained. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 12/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 13/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) Elevation – Area – Volume Curves for a reservoir CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 14/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) Storage characteristics of a reservoir CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 15/39 2. RESERVOIRS Characteristics of Reservoirs(continued) Hydropower Reservoir CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 16/39 2. RESERVOIRS Overview Introduction Characteristics of Reservoirs Determination of Reservoir Capacity Mass Curve Analysis Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity Sequent Peak Analysis Operation Study Other Approaches in Capacity Determination Reservoir Sedimentation CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 17/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity The yield of a reservoir is defined as the quantity of water, which is supplied for a certain duration. The duration may change with the purpose of the reservoir. A few years Æ Large reservoirs Week Day Hour The yield is a function of the inflow, and the capacity of the reservoir. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 18/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) Safe Yield (Firm Yield): The amount of water that is supplied for a critical period. It is a guarantied amount during this critical period. Critical Period: The duration of lowest flow observed in the records of the stream. Depending upon the length of the flow critical period may change so the safe yield. Yield is not calculated certainly. The probability must be used. During the periods of high flow there will be extra available water, more than the safe yield which is called secondary yield. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 19/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) Average Yield: The arithmetic average of the safe and secondary yields over a long period. There is a risk involved for a reservoir. The amount of risk depends on the purpose of the reservoir. Target Yield: The yield determined based on the estimated demands for a reservoir. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 20/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) For the determination of reservoir capacity, the critical period must be determined first. A long period of observed flow is required. When short period of observed flows or no observations area available stochastic methods are used to generate synthetic flows that has the same statistical properties such as mean, variance, correlations etc. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 21/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) There are four different methods to determine the capacity if a reservoir. Mass Curve (Ripple diagram) Method, Sequent Peak Algorithm, Operation Study, and Other Approaches (Stochastic Methods and Optimization Analysis etc…). CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 22/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883) One of the most widely used methods. Assumptions: Demand is constant, and, the year repeats itself continuously. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering ΣS,ΣD ΣS ΣD VOLUME 23/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883) If the flow is the daily or monthly discharge then the area under the curve up to a certain time will be the volume of runoff for that period. The slope of the mass curve at a certain time gives the discharge at that time on the hydrograph CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 24/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883) Critical Period CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering Required storage capacity of the reservoir is the vertical difference a+b 25/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883) a. Determination of capacity for a known yield 1. The tangents, which are parallel to the demand line, are plotted at the high points (D and E). 2. The maximum departures from the tangents to the following low points of the mass curve ( F and G) determine the necessary storage amounts V1 and V2. The reservoir would be full at points D, D’, E, and E’. The reservoir would be empty at points F and G. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 3. The largest one of the volumes will give the required capacity of the reservoir. 26/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 1. Mass Curve Analysis (Ripple Diagram Method, 1883) b. Determination of yield for a known capacity 1. The value V of known reservoir capacity is placed vertically in all the low points in the mass curve and tangents are drawn to the previous high points. 2. The slope of these tangents (D1 and D2) indicate the yields that can be supplied for those critical periods with this given capacity. The plotted tangents must cut the mass curve when extended forward, as it is the case here with points C’ and E’. Otherwise, the reservoir will not refill. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 3. The smallest one of the yields can be supplied all the time. 27/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) The mass curve gives results if ΣD < ΣS during the period of record. The graphical approach is quite satisfactory if the reservoir releases are constant during the period of analysis. When reservoir releases vary, the sequent-peak analysis is recommended. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 28/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 2. Sequent Peak Analysis Sequent Peak Analysis is more suitable when the data of long observation periods or long generated data are used, or when the demand is not constant. 1. Differences between inflows (S) and demands (D) are calculated and their summations obtained. 2. Σ(S-D) values are plotted against time as shown in the figure. 3. On this plot the first peak value and next larger peak (sequent peak) are determined. 5. This process is repeated for all the 4. The storage required between these two points is the difference between the first peak peaks in the record period as shown in the figure also. The maximum of the and the lowest point in this period. storage values is the required capacity. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 29/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 2. Sequent Peak Analysis If the record period or generated data sequence is very long, the graphical solution may be time consuming. In that case and analytical solution procedure may be applied for the analysis and it can be solved easily using a computer. In this way, the required storage Vt at the end of a period t can be expressed as: D − St + Vt −1 if positive Vt = t otherwise 0 At the beginning of the analysis, initially Vt-1 is set to zero and calculations continue to find Vt values for up to twice the length of the record period. The maximum of all the calculated values of Vt is the required storage capacity. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 30/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 3. Operation Study The reservoir storage is considered as adequate when the reservoir can supply all types of demands under possible losses like seepage and evaporation. In order to increase the operational performance of a reservoir, the evaporation and seepage must be controlled. The operation of a storage reservoir is also governed by the inflow. Rule curves indicating temporal storage requirements according to local conditions and project demands need to be used for effective operation purposes. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 31/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 3. Operation Study Rules: During normal periods of river flow, the reservoir will be maintained at the normal pool level. If extremely high flows are expected, the normal pool level can be drawn to such an elevation that the maximum expected flood flow will be sufficient to restore the active storage to its maximum level. In the case of higher flows induced by snowmelt, there is often enough time to empty the full content of the active pool prior to the arrival of the flood flows. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 32/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 3. Operation Study The operation study is based on the solution of the continuity equation. dV = I −Q dt where dV: differential storage during time dt I: instantaneous total inflow Q: instantaneous total outflow An operation study may be carried out only for a period of extremely low flows (critical period) or entire period of record. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 33/39 2. RESERVOIRS Determination of Reservoirs Capacity (continued) 3. Operation Study Since the information concerned the time variation of inflow and outflow is normally limited, then long term (e.g. one month) averaged quantities of inflow and outflow are considered in practice: ∆V = I −Q ∆t where ∆V: the change in storage during time interval ∆t. I : the average inflow (runoff, precipitation etc…) during ∆t Q : the average outflow (evaporation, seepage, controlled outflows, mandatory releases, uncontrolled spills etc…) during ∆t. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 34/39 2. RESERVOIRS Overview Introduction Characteristics of Reservoirs Determination of Reservoir Capacity Mass Curve Analysis Determination of reservoir capacity for a known yield Determination of yield from a known reservoir capacity Sequent Peak Analysis Operation Study Other Approaches in Capacity Determination Reservoir Sedimentation CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 35/39 2. RESERVOIRS Reservoir Sedimentation River carry some suspended sediment and move the larger solids along the stream bed (bed load). Suspended sediment and bed load are deposited as a delta at the head of the reservoir. Reservoir sedimentation directly affects the lifetime of a dam. However, mechanics of reservoir sedimentation is highly complicated. Therefore, in practice, sediment load measurement are carried out in streams and calibration curve (stream discharge, Q – suspened load, Qs) is developed. The United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) recommends a sampling period of at least 5 years. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 36/39 2. RESERVOIRS Reservoir Sedimentation (continued) By examining the basin data of 16 different dams in Turkey, Göğüş and Yalçınkaya (1992) recommended the following bestfit equation for the annual sediment yield having a correlation coefficient of 0.89: Y = 1906.26 Ad0.953 where Y: the mean annual sediment yield (m3). Ad : the drainage area (km2). CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 37/39 2. RESERVOIRS Reservoir Sedimentation (continued) Trap Efficiency: The percentage of the inflowing sediment which is retained in a reservoir. Trap efficiency is a function of the ratio of the reservoir capacity to total inflow. The trap efficiency of a reservoir decreases with age as the reservoir capacity is reduced by sediment accumulation. Actually, it is very difficult to predict the sediment accumulation almost zero accumulation during low flows extremely large accumulation during floods CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 38/39 2. RESERVOIRS Reservoir Sedimentation (continued) In order to increase the lifetime of a reservoir, the rate and nature of sediment inflow to a reservoir can be controlled to a certain extend. This may be accomplished by: using upstream sedimentation basins, providing vegetative screens, soil conservation methods, such as terraces, strip cropping, etc. use of upstream by-pass channels, design sluice gates at various levels to discharge suspended sediment, Irrespective of how well the above measures are taken, all reservoirs are eventually filled with sediment. However, the filling period may be extended. CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 39/39
