Water Saving Technology for Methane Mitigation-Orbanus Naharia et al

JOURNAL OF CRITICAL REVIEWS
ISSN- 2394-5125
VOL 7, ISSUE 16, 2020
COMBINATION OF WATER SAVING TECHNOLOGY
AND ORGANIC FERTILIZER FOR CH4 MITIGATION
IN RICE PADDY CULTIVATION
Obanus Naharia1 , Yuli Irianto2, Abd Haris Bahrun3 , Dwi Guntoro4, Stella Taulu5 , Utari Satiman6
1,5,6
2
Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and Science of Unima. Kampus Unima Street,
Tondano
Corteva Agriscience (Agricultural Division of DowDupont). Cibis Nine 10 th Floor. TB. Simatupang
Street, No.2. Cilandak Timur, Jakarta Selatan 12560
3
4
Faculty of Agriculture, Universitas Hasanuddin, Makassar, Indonesia
Department of Agronomy and Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture. IPB University. Bogor Indonesia
E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected],
4
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]
Received: 16 March 2020 Revised and Accepted: 19 June 2020
ABSTRACT: Climate change as one of the global warming impacts is a phenomenon of the increasing
temperature of the earth that takes place globally from year to year. Global warming occurs as the result of the
greenhouse effect, the increased emissions of gases such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) that trap the solar energy in the earth atmosphere. Paddy rice cultivation
is the biggest contributor to CH4 gas emissions produced through anaerobic decomposition of organic material
in the flooded irrigation system and through nitrous oxide gas generated from the volatilization of nitrogen as a
result of intensive administration of inorganic fertilizers. This paper deals with irrigation technology, paddy
field cultivation, and emissions. The study used a Randomized Block Design as the environmental design and
split-plot as the treatment design. The main plot was Water-saving Technology (A) consisting of three levels,
which were Surface (Flooded) Irrigation of 5cm (A1), Intermittent Irrigation (A2), and Saturated Water
Conditions (A3). The subplot was a dosage of an organic fertilizer made from local raw material, fermented
water hyacinth (bokashi) (P) consisting of 3 levels, which were 800 kg/ha (P1), 1,000 kg/ha (P2), and 1,200
kg/ha (P3). The results showed that the highest CH4 emissions were obtained from the flooded irrigation
treatment combined with organic fertilization of 1,200 kg/ha. There were no differences in terms of production
in all treatment combinations. The differences in production only occurred in the average treatment of irrigation,
in which the highest production occurred in the flooded irrigation treatment.
KEYWORDS: Methane, Oxidation Layer, Organic Fertilizer.
I.
INTRODUCTION
Paddy rice cultivation is one of the biggest contributors to greenhouse gas emission that is CH4 (methane)
emissions produced through the flooded irrigation system and N2O (Nitrous Oxide) produced from the
evaporation of inorganic N fertilizers. The research on paddy rice cultivation with flooded irrigation that we
have carried out during the two planting seasons showed that such a cultivation system caused CH4 (methane)
emissions of 303.08 kg CH4/ha/season [1], [2]. In Kyoto Protocol, there are six kinds of greenhouse gases,
which are carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), methane (CH4), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6),
perfluorocarbons (PFC), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFC) [3]. Such gases are called a greenhouse gas because
they have the ability to hold the heat in them. The intensity of longwave radiation absorption by each of the
greenhouse gases and its lifetime in the atmosphere varies. Therefore, each of the gases has constant heating
relative to CO2. Methane (CH4) and N2O emissions contribute around 15% and 6% of the total greenhouse
effect, respectively [4].
Murdiyarso et al., (1997) and Lelieveld et al. (1992) state that CH4 (methane) contained in the earth's
atmosphere comes from natural resources and the results of human activities [3], [5]. Khalil and Rasmussen
(1992) suggest that overall paddy rice cultivation is the largest source of CH4 (methane) emissions (21.9%) of
all other sources, with the growth rate of 1%-2% per year [6]. Madigan et al., (1997) suggest that the source of
production of CH4 (methane) into the atmosphere comes from biogenic sources, such as paddy rice cultivation.
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CH4 (methane) is an important product resulting from the degradation of organic matter under anaerobic
conditions [7]. The methanogenically degraded cellulose produces around 50% of CO2 and 50% of CH4 [8], [9].
Paddy rice plays an important role in producing CH4 (methane) emissions into the atmosphere. The air spaces
in the well-developed leaf, stem, and root of the aerenchyma vessels are the main cause of the gas exchange
from the soil to the air. The differences in the gradient of water concentration around the root with inter-cell
space cause CH4 (methane) to dissolve and be diffused [1]–[3], [10]–[15].
The irrigation in the paddy rice cultivation is an important critical factor that affects the amount of CH4
(methane) emissions that occur because the creation of anaerobic conditions in the soil is a limiting factor for O 2
to supply the aerobic microorganisms in the flooded soil. Flooding is a very important criterion in the process of
forming CH4 [2]. The occurrence of CH4 (methane) emissions from paddy rice plants into the atmosphere is
based on three processes. The first process is the release of CH4 (methane) in the form of air bubbles
(ebullition). The mechanism of releasing CH4 (methane) through this method can cause the loss of CH4 of
around 49% -70% of the total emissions [16]. The second process is diffusion, which is determined by the
differences in CH4 (methane) concentration in the water and the rate of supplying CH4 (methane) to the water
surface. The third process is the release of methane through erenchyma, and from paddy rice, it can reach
around 90% [10]. The mechanism for releasing CH4 (methane) is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 The Process of Production and Emissions of CH4 (Methane) from Paddy Rice
Another problem that arises from paddy rice cultivation is the intensive use of inorganic fertilizers. Such an
intensive use of inorganic fertilizers has two impacts. The first impact is the compaction of agricultural land that
causes the soil to be fragmented when drying. The soil compaction will worsen the aeration and drainage of
land. Therefore, living organisms in the soil cannot perform their functions properly due to the lack of water and
oxygen. Secondly, the use of inorganic fertilizers at a dose of 200-300 kg/ha causes eutrophication in bodies of
water. We are aware that only approximately 35%-40% of urea fertilizer is absorbed by cultivated crops, such as
paddy rice. Some of the remaining are carried away to other water bodies through surface runoff, and the rest
evaporates into the atmosphere in the form of N2O (nitrous oxide).
Organic fertilizers play an important role in creating soil fertility. The role of organic matter for soil relates to
changes in soil properties, such as the physical, biological, and chemical properties of the soil. Organic matter
forms the granulation in the soil and is very important in the formation of stable soil aggregates. Organic matter
is a precious soil aggregate. Through the administration of organic fertilizer, the soil that previously has heavy
structure became a relatively lighter crumb structure. Vertical water movement or infiltration can be improved,
and the soil can absorb water faster. Therefore, the surface flow and erosion can be minimized. Similarly, soil
aeration is better because the soil porosity increases due to the formation of the aggregates. This paper deals
with irrigation technology, paddy field cultivation, and emissions.
II.
MATERIALS AND INSTRUMENTS
The experiment was carried out on the paddy field owned by a farmer in South Tondano Sub-district,
Minahasa Regency, North Sulawesi Province, Indonesia. The materials used in this study were IR-64
rice varieties, fertilizers (local organic fertilizer). The instruments used include a 5ml-syringe, two
boxes of polypropylene glass with a size of 40x40x60cm and 40x40x110cm respectively, an oven, a
sampling valve, a gas chromatograph GC-8A equipped with FID detector (Flame Ionization Detector),
chromatopag C-R6A, a sieve, a centrifuge, a thermometer, a pH meters, an EC meter, a measuring flask,
a measuring cup, a volumetric pipette, a petri dish, a scale, a cutter, and a ring sample.
III.
RESEARCH DESIGN
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The experiment was carried out using a Randomized Block Design (RBD) as environmental design. The
treatment design was a Split Plot design described as follows.
The main plot, Water Saving Technology (A):
A1 = Flooded Irrigation
A2 = Intermitten Irrigation
A3 = Saturated Water Conditions
Sub Plot, Doses of Organic Fertilizer Made from Local Material (P):
P1 = 800 kg/ha
P2 = 1.000 kg/ha
P3 = 1.200 kg/ha
Therefore, there were 9 treatments, each of which was repeated three times, with a total of 27
experimental units. Each trial plot was measured as 4x6m. The placement of all treatments in the
experimental plot was done randomly.
IV. OBSERVATION
a.
CH 4 (Methane)
The gas sample was taken using two kinds of boxes made of polypropylene glass, one of which was
with a size of 40x40x60cm, and the other was with a size of 40x40x110cm. The type of box used
depended on the height of the plant. Each of the boxes was always equipped with a cover made of
rubber. During the sample gas extraction, each of the boxes was equipped with a temperature gauge to
determine the temperature changes that occurred inside the boxes. The headspace the boxes were
recorded each time when the gas sample was extracted to discover the effective volume of the boxes for
calculating the CH4 emissions. The gas sample was taken using a 5ml syringe at intervals of 3, 6, 9, and
12 minutes to discover the speed of change in emissions. The gas sample was taken once every 4 days,
and it was started after the first fertilizer application. However, during the drying period, the gas sample
was taken every two days. The gas sample was taken in the morning from 06'00 am to 09'00 am. The
CH4 concentration of the gas sample was then analyzed using gas chromatography, which was equipped
with an FID detector (Flame Ionization Detector). Each time the gas sample was taken, potential redox
changes (Eh) and soil acidity (pH) were also measured. The calculation of CH 4 (methane) emissions was
carried out by using the equation used by Lantin (1995) described as follows.
CH 4 
where:
CH 4

dc V mWCH 4 
273.2

x x
x
o
dt A mVCH 4   273.2  T C  


=
CH4 emission
dc
dt
=
Linear regression gradient
V
A
=
Volume Chamber
mWCH 4
=
CH4 molecular weight
=
Temperature correction factor (K)
mVCH 4


273.2


o
  273.2  T C  
Then, plant height measurement was carried out when the plants were at 12 MST, 21 MST, and 42 MST.
Plant height was measured from the ground to the longest leaf tip. The calculation of the number of tillers was
carried out when the plants were at 21 HST and 42 HST. Production observations were carried out by weighing
the result of dried harvest crops with a standard moisture content of 14%. The amount of empty grain and filled
grain. The harvest’s wet biomass and wet sample biomass.
V. RESULT
5.1 CH4 Gas Emission
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Table 1. CH4 Gas Emissions for Each Treatment (mg CH4 /m2)
Treatment
A1P1
A1P2
A1P3
A2P1
A2P2
A2P3
A3P1
A3P2
A3P3
kg CH4/ha/season
163.07c
164.43c
423.80a
144.12c
177.75c
247.37b
60.31d
86.13d
105.28cd
St. Deviation
23.17
11.98
60.95
23.88
24.68
44.46
8.48
18.85
18.72
The numbers in the same row, followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of
0.05.
Table 1 shows that the highest CH4 gas emissions occurred in the flood irrigation treatment combined with
the treatment of 1.200 kg/ha (A1P3) organic fertilizer with emissions of 423.80 kg CH4/ha/season. Statistically,
the CH4 gas emissions in A1P3 treatment were significantly different from the CH4 emissions in the other
treatments. The lowest CH4 gas emissions occurred in the level-basin irrigation treatment combined with
organic fertilizer dosage of 800 kg/ha (A3P1) with emissions of 60.31 kg CH4/ha/season, followed by flood
irrigation treatment combined with organic fertilizer dosage of 1.000 kg/ha (A3P2) with emissions of 86.13 kg
CH4/ha/season and flood irrigation treatment combined with a dosage of 1.200 kg of organic fertilizer/ha
(A3P3) with emissions of 105.28 kg CH4/ha/season. The data in Table 1 also shows that in all irrigation
treatment (A1, A2, A3), when combined with organic fertilizer treatment of 1.200 kg/ha (P3), resulted in high
methane gas emissions.
5.2 Growth
5.2.1 Number of tillers
Table 2. Number of Tillers in the Irrigation Treatment
Treatment
A1
A2
A3
21 DAP
11.8
12.9
11.3
35 DAP
19.9a
15.2ab
14.2b
Number of Tillers
46 DAP
14.8a
12.8b
12.6b
60 DAP
13.7
12.1
12.1
77 DAP
12.3a
12.8b
12.4b
Number in the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of 0.05.
Table 2 shows that the number of tillers is highest in treatment A1, obtained when rice paddy aged 35 days
after planting (DAP) with the number of tillers as much as 19.9, while the lowest number of tillers were
obtained when the paddy rice aged 21 DAP, with the number of tillers of 11.8. The highest number of tillers in
treatment A2 were obtained when the rice paddy aged 35 DAP (the same with A1 treatment) with the number of
tillers as much as 15.2, while the lowest number of tillers were obtained when the paddy rice aged 60 DAP with
the number of the tiller of 12.1. The highest number of tillers on treatment A3 were obtained when the paddy
rice aged 35 DAP (the same as in the treatment of A1 and A2) by the number of tillers at 14.2, while the lowest
number of tillers were obtained when the paddy rice aged 21 DAP with the number of tillers of 11.3. The
number of tillers when the paddy rice aged 21 DAP does not show any differences for all treatments, as well as
when the rice paddy aged 60 DAP. The differences in a number of tillers occurred when it aged 35 DAP
and 46 DAP, in which A1 treatment produced more number of tillers compared to A2 and A3 treatments.
Table 3 Number of Tillers in the Fertilization Treatment
Treatment
Number of Tillers
21 DAP
35 DAP
46 DAP
60 DAP
77 DAP
P1
11.7ab
12.8
11.2
10.7
13.8
P2
13.3a
13.4
11.3
11.1
13.4
P3
11.1b
14.3
12.2
13.3
12.4
Numbers at the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of 0.05.
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Table 3 shows that there are no differences in the number of tillers in organic fertilizer doses treatment when
the paddy rice aged 21 DAP, where the highest number of tillers occurs in the treatment of organic fertilizer
doses of 1.000 kg/ha (P2) with the number of tillers as much as 13.3. While the lowest number of tillers
occurred in the treatment of 1.200 kg/ha (P3) of organic fertilizer doses with 11.7 tillers when the paddy rice
plants were 35 DAP, 46 DAP, 60 DAP, and 77 DAP, it did not show any differences in the number of tillers for
all treatments of organic fertilizer doses (P1, P2, P3).
Table 4. Number of Tillers in the Treatment Combination
Treatment
A1P1
A1P2
A1P3
A2P1
A2P2
A2P3
A3P1
A3P2
A3P3
21 DAP
11.4
13.7
10.5
12.2
14.7
12.1
11.5
11.8
10.6
35 DAP
18.2
18.3
17.3
15.9
15.9
13.7
14.8
15.4
12.3
Number of Tillers
46 DAP
15.8
13.9
14.7
13.4
12.7
12.3
13.4
12.7
11.7
60 DAP
14.9
12.9
13.2
12.8
12.3
11.3
12.7
12.8
10.8
77 DAP
15.4
13.7
13.7
13.4
13.2
11.8
12.5
13.2
11.6
Table 4 shows that the treatment combination of irrigation (A) with the dose of organic fertilizer (P) showed
no difference in the number of tillers of the paddy rice. This can be seen through the data when the
rice paddy aged 21 DAP, 35 DAP, 46 DAP, 60 DAP, and 77 DAP. However, the highest average number of
tillers of paddy rice was obtained in the treatment A1P1 when the paddy rice aged 35 DAP with a number of
tillers as many as 18.2 while the lowest average number of tillers were obtained at treatment A1P1 when the
plant aged 21 DAP with the number of tillers as many as 10.6.
5.2.2. Plant Height
Table 5. Plant Height in Treatment Combination
Treatment
Plant Height (cm)
21 DAP
35 DAP
46 DAP
60 DAP
77 DAP
A1P1
36.5cd
54.8b
65.9ab
87.7
96.6
A1P2
38.7b
54.9b
65.1ab
92.1
95.0
A1P3
34.2d
51.0c
63.7ab
85.1
91.9
A2P1
39.0b
38.4d
63.8c
93.8
94.8
A2P2
40.3b
54.3b
67.6a
94.6
96.7
A2P3
39.3b
52.0b
64.1ab
90.7
91.2
A3P1
50.8a
66.1a
67.2a
89.7
90.9
A3P2
38.2bc
52.1b
64.1ab
90.8
94.3
A3P3
37.7c
50.4c
62.3b
86.7
86.8
Numbers at the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of 0.05.
Table 5 shows that there are differences in plant height in the combination treatment, especially in
observations of 21 DAP, 35 DAP, and 46 DAP. In the observation of 21 DAP, the highest plant height was
obtained in the combination treatment A3P1 with plant height reaching 50.8 cm. While the lowest plant height
was obtained in combination treatment A3P1 with plant height reaching 34.2 cm. When the paddy rice aged 35
DAP, the plant height reached 66.1 cm in combination treatment A3P1 and 38.4 cm in combination
treatment A2P1. When the paddy rice aged 46 DAP, the plant height reached 67.6 cm on combination treatment
A2P2 and 62.3 cm at treatment A3P3.
5.3
Production
5.3.1 Production per Hectare
Table 6. Rice Production in Every Treatment
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Treatment
Irrigation
A1
A2
A3
Average
P1
5167.3
4814.3
4597.7
4859.8
Land Management kg/ha
P2
5123.6
4725.7
4665.3
4838.2
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Average
P3
4723.9
4565.3
4571.0
4619.8
5004.7a
4701.7b
4611.3b
Numbers at the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of 0.05.
Table 6 shows that the combination treatment of irrigation with a dose of organic fertilizer has no effect on
rice production. The difference in production only occurs in the average of irrigation treatment where the
highest production occurs in the treatment A1 with 5004.7 kg/ha, the average of treatment A2 with 4701.7
kg/ha, and the average of treatment A3 with 4611.3 kg/ha.
5.3.2 Filled grains
Table 7. Filled Grains in Each Treatment
Treatment
Land Management
Average
Irrigation
P1
P2
P3
A1
869.02
779.93
809.02
819.32a
A2
842.23
760.27
783.42
795.31ab
A3
778.65
759.28
699.50
745.81b
Average
829.96
766.49
763.98
Numbers at the same row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at the BNT level of 0.05.
The data in Table 7 shows that statistically, there were no differences in the amount of filled grain in all
irrigation treatments combined with a dose of organic fertilizer. The differences in the number of filled grain
only occur on the average of the irrigation treatment, where the number of filled grains in A1 treatment was
819.32, A2 treatment was 795.31, and A3 treatment was 745.81.
5.3.3.
Empty grains
Table 8. Empty Grains in Each Treatment
Treatment
Irrigation
A1
A2
A3
Average
P1
136.67
129.89
132.39
132.987
Land Management
P2
145.78
156.36
143.36
148.50
Average
P3
124.47
118.37
126.31
123.05
135.64
134.87
134.02
Table 8 shows that statistically, there is no difference in the number of empty grains for all combination’s
treatment of irrigation with a dose of organic fertilizer. The same thing also happens on the average of the
amount of empty grain on irrigation and the dose of organic fertilizer treatments.
VI. DISCUSSION
The highest CH4 gas emissions were obtained at the treatment A1P3 (Table 1). This is due to the anaerobic
bacteria that work optimally to decompose the organic material in paddy fields on the flood irrigation treatment.
The decomposition of organic material anaerobically by methanogenic bacteria will produce methane gas. The
dose of organic fertilizer treatment as much as 1.200 kg/ha added the availability of organic material as a
substrate that will be decomposed by methanogenic bacteria in the paddy field. With flood irrigation treatment,
the atmosphere in the rice field turned into an oxidative or anaerobic. On the other hand, the administration of
high dose organic fertilizer increased the availability of organic substrates decomposed by methanogenic
bacteria and resulted in CH4 gas production. Therefore, the combination of A1P1 treatment resulted in high CH4
gas emissions reaching 423.80 kg CH4/ha/season.
On the contrary, the treatment of A2P1, A2P2, A3P1, and A3P2 resulted in lower CH4 gas emissions when
compared to the A1P1 treatment. It is due to the fact that in level-basin and flood irrigation treatment, the
oxidation occurs, and the bacteria that work are those that use oxygen. The lack of activity of methanogenic
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bacteria to decompose organic matter causes low CH4 gas emissions. Another cause is the lower dose of organic
fertilizer that results in limited substrate decomposed by methanogenic bacteria, resulted in low CH4 gas
emissions. Flooding and the availability of organic material in lowland rice cultivation greatly affect the amount
of CH4 gas emissions.
From the observation data on the number of tillers in the irrigation treatment (Table 2), it can be seen that the
A1 treatment greatly influences the initiation of the formation of tillers. This can be seen when the paddy rice
plants aged 35 DAP and 46 DAP, where the number of tillers is higher than those in A2 and A3 treatments. The
differences in the number of tillers at 35 DAP and 46 DAP were due to the fact that at this age, the paddy rice
was in the active period of formation of tillers. Therefore, it can be seen that the number of tillers is strongly
influenced by the availability of sufficient water. Flooding in A1 treatment provides sufficient water to initiate
the formation of paddy rice plants. On the other hand, on A2 and A3 treatment, due to aerobic conditions or not
flooded at certain times, the formation of tillers is inhibited. This is demonstrated through observation data on
the number of tillers in the irrigation treatment when the rice plant is 35 DAP and 46 DAP (Table 2).
Through the observation data on the number of tillers in fertilization treatment (Table 3), it can be seen that
the dose of organic fertilizer treatment does not greatly affect the formation of tillers as shown in results of
observations in 35 DAP, 46 DAP, 60 DAP, and 77 DAP, where the addition of doses of organic fertilizer had no
significant effect on the formation of tillers initiation in lowland rice plants. It is suspected that the nutrients in
the soil, especially nitrogen, are sufficient for the formation of tillers initiation. The difference in the number of
tillers only occurs when the paddy rice plant is 21 DAP. This may be due to other effects besides the treatment
of organic fertilizer doses. From the observation data on the number of tillers in the combination treatment
(Table 4), it is known that there were no real differences in the number of tillers for all combination treatments
tested. However, there was a tendency that the highest average of the number of tillers occurred in treatment A1
combined with treatments P1, P2, and P3. This shows that flooding greatly influences the formation of tillers'
initiation in lowland rice cultivation.
The observation data on paddy rice height in the combination treatment (Table 5) shows that the tallest
crop obtained in the A3P1 treatment. This phenomenon occurs when plants are 21 DAP, 35 DAP, and 46 DAP.
From these data, it is known that the increase of the paddy rice heights is not always determined by the height of
the flooded surface and high dose of organic fertilizer. Observation data prove that the level-basin irrigation
treatment combined with a dose of 800 kg/ha fertilizer is sufficient to spur the vegetative growth of lowland
rice. This means that the non-flooded soil condition but saturated with water and organic matter through the
provision of 800 kg/ha of organic fertilizer is quite effective for vegetative growth, especially for the plant
height.
From the results of observing lowland rice production (Table 6), it is known that the combination of all
irrigation treatments with a dose of organic fertilizer does not affect the yield of lowland rice. This means that
treatment A1, A2, and A3 when combined with treatments P1, P2, and P3, have no significant effect on paddy
production. Therefore, to achieve maximum results in the cultivation of lowland rice, the use of flood irrigation
throughout the life cycle of plants and high doses of organic fertilizer is not mandatory. Intermittent irrigation
and level-basin irrigation, when combined with a dose of 800 kg/ha organic fertilizer, is good enough for
lowland rice production. This is also supported by the observation of the filled grain (Table 7) and the
observation of empty grain (Table 8), where there are no significant differences in the amount of filled grain and
empty grain in all combinations of irrigation treatment and the dose of organic fertilizer.
VII.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that the application of irrigation technology in the cultivation of lowland rice, which
includes intermittent irrigation and level-basin irrigation, is proven to be able to reduce CH4 emissions. Flood
irrigation results are in high CH4 gas emissions. The higher the dose of organic fertilizer, the higher the CH4 gas
emission. The combination of irrigation technology, which includes intermittent irrigation and level-basin
irrigation with low dose organic fertilizer in lowland rice cultivation, has proven to be able to reduce CH4 gas
emissions.
VIII.
REFERENCES
[1] O. Naharia, M. S. Saeni, S. Sabiham, and H. Burhan, "Irrigation and Soil Processing Technology in
Lowland Rice Cultivation for Gas Methane Mitigation (CH4)". Jakarta (2005).
[2] O. Naharia, "Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Methane Gas mitigation in Paddy Cultivation without Land
Processes in the Rainy Season," vol. 12, no. 1. Manado: UNSRAT Faculty of Agricultur, (2006).
[3] D. Murdiyarso, K. Hairiah, Y. A. Husin, and U. R. Wasrin, “Greenhouse gas emissions and carbon balance
in slash-and-burn practices,” Alternatives to Slash-and-Burn Research in Indonesia. Rep, no. 6, (1997), pp.
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